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Darius III
𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁
Depiction of Darius III during the Battle of Issus in the Alexander Mosaic (c. 100 BC), ancient Roman floor mosaic from the House of the Faun in Pompeii, Italy
King of the Achaemenid Empire
Reign336–330 BC
PredecessorArtaxerxes IV Arses
Successor
Pharaoh of Egypt
Reign336–332 BC
PredecessorArtaxerxes IV
SuccessorAlexander the Great
Bornc. 380 BC
DiedJuly 330 BC (aged c. 50)
Parthia
Burial
Persepolis
SpouseStateira I
Issue
HouseAchaemenid
FatherArsames
MotherSisygambis
ReligionZoroastrianism

Darius III (Old Persian: 𐎭𐎠𐎼𐎹𐎺𐎢𐏁, romanized: Dārayava(h)uš; New Persian: [داریوش] Error: {{Lang}}: invalid parameter: |translit= (help); c. 380 – 330 BC) was the last Achaemenid King of Kings of Persia, reigning from 336 BC to his death in 330 BC.

Contrary to his predecessor Artaxerxes IV Arses, Darius was a distant member of the Achaemenid dynasty. During his early career, he was reportedly an obscure figure among his peers, and first rose to prominence during the Cadusian expedition of Artaxerxes III in the 350s BC. As a reward for his bravery, he was given the Satrapy of Armenia. Around 340 BC, he was made in charge of the royal "postal service," a high-ranking position. In 338 BC, Artaxerxes III met an abrupt end after being poisoned by the court eunuch and chiliarch (hazahrapatish) Bagoas, who installed his youngest son Arses on the throne. He only reigned for a few years, until Bagoas had him poisoned as well. Darius was subsequently installed on throne, and soon forced Bagoas to drink his own poison after discovering that the eunuch had planned to poison him as well.

He is partially remembered in Iranian traditions as Dara II, the last king of the mythological Kayanian dynasty, which reflected memories of the Achaemenids.

Name

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Before his accession, Darius bore the name of Artashata (Old Persian: *Artašiyāta, "Happy in Arta").[1][2] The 2nd-century Roman historian Justin is the only historian to refer Darius as Codomannus, a name he supposedly bore before he rose to prominence. It may have been his nickname, or possibly a third name. Its etymology is uncertain.[1][3] Badian has suggested that the name was of Western Semitic origin, most likely from the Aramaic qdmwn ("from the East, Easterner").[4] Having two names was not unusual; there are several recorded instances of Babylonian figures having two names, often an Babylonian and Aramaic name. One Persian magnate is also attested with an Babylonian and Iranian name. However, this practise seems to be have fallen out of favour during Darius' lifetime. Badian suggests that his birth name was the Aramaic Codomannus, which he later dropped in favour of Artashata when he rose in ranks.[5] He first adopted the regnal name of Darius (Old Persian: Daraya-vahauš, "he who holds firm the good(ness)") when he ascended the Achaemenid throne in 336 BC.[1][6]

Historiography

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The last century of the Achaemenid era is notable for lacking in sources, especially during the reign of Darius III. He is not attested in any Persian sources, and is almost completely only known from the reports of Greek historians, who portray his career as a contradiction to that of the successful Alexander the Great.[1]

Background

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Darius was born in c. 380. He was a distant member of the royal Achaemenid dynasty. He was the son of a certain Arsames, and grandson of Ostanes, whose father Darius II ruled the Achaemenid Empire from 424 BC to 405 BC.[1] His mother was Sisygambis, a women of obscure origins. She was probably of Achaemenid descent, although it is unknown to which branch she belonged to. She may have been the daughter of Ostanes, and thus the sister of Arsames.[7] Darius had a brother and sister; Oxyathres and Stateira I respectively.[8][1]

Early life

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Coin minted in by Cilicia by its satrap Mazaeus, portraying Artaxerxes III as pharaoh on the obverse, while a lion is depicted on the reverse

Artashata is first attested during the Cadusian expedition of Artaxerxes III (r. 358–338 BC) in the 350s BC. During a battle, Artashata distinguished himself by slaying a warrior in single combat. His exploit was noticed by Artaxerxes III, who sent him gifts and gave him the Satrapy of Armenia.[1][9] It was probably after this promotion that Artashata married for the first time, to an unknown noblewoman, who bore him two daughters, and possibly a son named Ariobarzanes.[10] His first marriage has suggested to be the terminus ad quem for when he dropped his Aramaic name Codomannus.[11] Greek writers report that Artashata later became the "courier" and "slave" of the king, which some modern historians believe was written in order to belittle Artashata. However, the terms are in reality a Greek translation of the Old Persian bandaka, which did not mean slave, but "henchman, (loyal) servant, vassal."[12][1][13]

On the Behistun inscription, Darius the Great (r. 522–486 BC) uses the term to refer to his high-ranking officers.[14] It has been deduced that Artashata was probably in charge of the royal "postal service," a high-ranking position. He may have held the same Persepolis sector headed by the prominent Persian officer Pharnaces (d. 497 BC).[14][1] It is uncertain when this happened, it has been suggested this promotion took place around 340 BC, when Artashata married for a second time, with his sister Stateira I. In 339 BC, they had a son named Ochus.[1] This demonstrates that Artaxerxes III, who was highly alert on any possible relative to challenge the throne, did not consider Artashata to pose the slighest threat to him or his son Arses.[14]

In late August/late September 338 BC, the court eunuch and chiliarch (hazahrapatish) Bagoas orchestrated the poisoning and subsequent death of Artaxerxes III through the latters own physician.[a][16][17] The majority of Artaxerxes III's sons, with the exception of Arses and Bisthanes, were also murdered by Bagoas.[18] Artaxerxes III's early death proved to be a problematic issue for Persia.[18] Several modern historians argue that his sudden death paved the way for the fall of the Achaemenid Empire.[19] Bagoas, acting as kingmaker, put the young Arses (Artaxerxes IV) on the throne.[18][20][21] Arses was determined on trying to free himself from Bagoas' authority and influence; he made an unsuccessful effort to have the latter poisoned, only to be poisoned himself along with the rest of his family by Bagoas, who put Artashata on the throne in 336 BC.[20] Darius III's reputation for bravery, his probable royal descent, and the support he enjoyed from Artaxerxes III all helped him gain acceptance amongst the aristocracy.[11][1] Macedonian propaganda, made in order to legitimize the conquests of Alexander the Great a few years later, accused Darius III of playing a key role in the murder of Arses, who was portrayed as the last king of the Achaemenid royal house.[22]

Reign

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The Kingdom of Macedon in 336 BC

Bagoas soon attempted to poison Darius III as well, but his plans were discovered. Darius III summoned Bagoas and asked him to drink a toast for him, giving him his own cup which was filled by poison. Bagoas was forced to drink the cup, resulting in his death.[23][24] This happened around the time of Alexander's accession to the Macedonian throne in the autumn of 336 BC.[11] At the start of Darius III's reign, Egypt and Babylon may have briefly been plunged into rebellion. Regardless, they were seemingly not of heavy significance, as reports about the events quickly disappear.[1]

Death

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In Parthia, near the Caspian Gates.[25]

Assessment

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Darius' failure is often attributed to his "cowardice", an interpretation dating back to the antiquity, and still recurrent today.[26][27] This view, however, has been criticized by many modern historians.[28] Among them are Waldemar Heckel, who states that; "The reputation for cowardice that has adhered to the man for more than two millennia was clearly unfounded and based on a willful misinterpretation of his later actions."[29]

In ancient and modern culture

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The claim of Sasan belonging to the Kayanian family was designed in order to justify that Ardashir was descended from the ancient Kayanian kings, who reflected memories of the Achaemenids.[30]

Dara II, the last Kayanian king to rule before Alexander, is partly based on the last Achaemenid King of Kings, Darius III (r. 336–330 BC), whose empire was indeed conquered by Alexander's forces.[30] A son of Dara II, named Sasan (called "the elder") fled to India and lived there in exile until his death.[30] He was survived by a son who was likewise named Sasan (called "the younger"), "which continued in the family for four generations".[30] A descendant of the family, likewise named Sasan, worked for Pabag, who was a local ruler in Pars.[30] Pabag's daughter married Sasan, and bore him a son named Ardashir.[30][31] Following this, Sasan is no longer mentioned.[30] The Shahnameh thus indicates that the ancestors of Sasan resided in India following Alexander's conquests.[30]

Family tree

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Notes

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  1. ^ According to a Babylonian tablet, Artaxerxes III "went to his fate", which is often understood to indicate death from natural causes. However, the same wording is also used to refer to the death of Xerxes I (r. 486 – 465 BC), who was in reality assassinated by his son.[15]

References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l EIr. 1994, pp. 51–54.
  2. ^ Briant 2015, p. 48.
  3. ^ Briant 2015, p. 49.
  4. ^ Badian 2000, p. 247.
  5. ^ Badian 2000, p. 249.
  6. ^ Schmitt 1994, p. 40.
  7. ^ Badian 2015.
  8. ^ Briant 2015, p. 417.
  9. ^ Badian 2000, pp. 245, 251.
  10. ^ Badian 2000, p. 251.
  11. ^ a b c Badian 2000, p. 252.
  12. ^ Badian 2000, pp. 249–250.
  13. ^ Eilers & Herrenschmidt 1988, pp. 682–685.
  14. ^ a b c Badian 2000, p. 250.
  15. ^ Waters 2014, p. 198.
  16. ^ Waters 2014, p. 197.
  17. ^ Dandamaev 1989, p. 312.
  18. ^ a b c Schmitt 1986, pp. 658–659.
  19. ^ Briant 2015, p. 88.
  20. ^ a b LeCoq 1986, p. 548.
  21. ^ Briant 2002, p. 690.
  22. ^ Briant 2002, p. 770.
  23. ^ Diodorus Siculus, Book XVII, Chapter 5.
  24. ^ Heckel 2020, pp. 11–12.
  25. ^ Briant 2015, p. 205.
  26. ^ Briant 2015, p. xiv.
  27. ^ Llewellyn-Jones 2017, p. 78.
  28. ^ Heckel 2020, p. 84 (see note 9).
  29. ^ Heckel 2020, p. 12.
  30. ^ a b c d e f g h Olbrycht 2016, p. 26.
  31. ^ Frye 1988, pp. 298–299.

Bibliography

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Ancient works

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Modern works

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  • Badian, Ernst (2000). "Darius III". Harvard Studies in Classical Philology. 100: 241–267. JSTOR 3185218. (registration required)
  • Badian, Ernst (2015). "Sisigambis". Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition. New York.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Briant, Pierre (1985). "Alexander the Great". Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, Vol. I, Fasc. 8. New York. pp. 827–830.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Briant, Pierre (2002). From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Eisenbrauns. pp. 1–1196. ISBN 9781575061207.
  • Briant, Pierre (2015), Darius in the Shadow of Alexander, Harvard University Press, ISBN 9780674745209
  • Dandamaev, Muhammad A. (1989). A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire. Brill. ISBN 978-9004091726.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
  • Eilers, W.; Herrenschmidt, C. (1988). "Banda". Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, Vol. III, Fasc. 7. New York. pp. 682–685.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • EIr. (1994). "Darius v. Darius III". Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, Vol. VI, Fasc. 1. New York. pp. 51–54.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Frye, R. N. (1988). "Bābak (1)". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 3. pp. 298–299.
  • Hanaway, William L. (1994). "Dārāb-nāma". Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, Vol. VII, Fasc. 1. New York. pp. 8–9.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Heckel, Waldemar (2020). In the Path of Conquest: Resistance to Alexander the Great. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–336. ISBN 9780190076696.
  • LeCoq, P. (1986). "Arses". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 5. p. 548.
  • Llewellyn-Jones, Lloyd (2017). "The Achaemenid Empire". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE). UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies. pp. 1–236. ISBN 9780692864401.
  • Olbrycht, Marek Jan (2016). "Dynastic Connections in the Arsacid Empire and the Origins of the House of Sāsān". In Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh; Pendleton, Elizabeth J.; Alram, Michael; Daryaee, Touraj (eds.). The Parthian and Early Sasanian Empires: Adaptation and Expansion. Oxbow Books. ISBN 9781785702082.
  • Roberts, John. "Darius III". Oxford Reference. Oxford University Press.
  • Schmitt, R. (1986). "Artaxerxes III". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 6. pp. 658–659.
  • Schmitt, Rudiger (1994). "Darius i. The Name". Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, Vol. VII, Fasc. 1. New York. p. 40.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Tafazzoli, Ahmad (1994). "Dārā(b) (1)". Encyclopædia Iranica, online edition, Vol. VII, Fasc. 1. New York. pp. 1–2.{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Waters, Matt (2014). Ancient Persia: A Concise History of the Achaemenid Empire, 550–330 BCE. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–272. ISBN 9781107652729.
HistoryofIran/Darius III
Born: ca. 380 BC Died: 330 BC
Preceded by King of Persia
Pharaoh of Egypt
336–330 BC 		Succeeded by
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