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Freeborn Women in ancient Rome were supposed to adhere to the strict gender role of being a dutiful daughter, wife, and mother. The public sphere was a man's place, and although women were citizens, they could not vote or hold political office. Information about the lives of lower and middle status women in ancient Rome is scarce because women were excluded from the public sphere, and therefore were widely ignored by Roman historians. Basic documents such as inscriptions and epitaphs remain on women, however they do not sufficiently provide one with important details about them. The greatest sources on women are accounts of famous female figures. These range from the writings of Livy, Sallust, Cicero and Tacitius. While Roman women held no direct political power, those from wealthy or powerful families exerted influence through private negotiations[1].Noteworthy women who left an undeniable mark on ancient Rome come in many forms. There are the semi-legendary Lucretia, Claudia Quinta, and Tanaquil whose stories took on mythic significance, as well as Republican-era women such as Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi and Fulvia, who commanded an army and issued coins bearing her image. There are also even more fleshed out and famous women of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, who lived in the palace of the Principate including Octavian's wife, Livia (58 BC-AD 29), who contributed to the formation of Imperial mores; and the empress Helena (c.250-330 AD), a driving force in promoting Christianity. These anomalies are of the greatest concern of those who study women in ancient Rome as they provide a different narrative that is contrary to the stereotype about a woman's place [2].
Women in Politics
[edit]Men argued firmly to block women from engaging in the public sphere. The political system in ancient Rome was comprised exclusively of men-- from senators to magistrates. Women were even prevented from voting. They were not seen as fit to be part of the political sphere as men believed them to be only suited for "elegance, adornment, and finery."[1] However, elite women could manipulate their husbands and through them exercise control over the political world. In some cases, women were viewed as a threat to male rule. Cato the elder went so far as to prevent boys from attending senatorial meetings in fear that they would relay the news to their inquisitive mothers[2]
A woman's role in politics changed under the principate when Octavian rose to princeps after the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE. Before this point, women not having the right to vote was a clear injustice compared to the power men held. However, starting with Octavian's rule, the inability to vote no longer mattered because the senate lost its power. Additionally, the shift from the forum to the palace allowed for women who lived there to gain an upper hand in influencing politics.[1]
Women and sexuality
[edit]From the start of the Roman republic, there was a high emphasis placed on a woman's virginity. Pudicitia(chastity)was a goddess of feminine purity, and was worshiped by Roman women. Only those who were virgins were allowed to enter the temple[1]. A woman's sexual life began with the consummation of her marriage in her husband's cubiculum, or private room where slaves did not enter. In Roman houses it was common for men and women to each have their own cubicula, allowing potential for them to engage in sex lives separate from each other. While it was expected that women should only have sexual relations with their husbands, it was common for men to have many sexual partners throughout his life[1]. After marriage, women were scrutinized in the household to prevent any adulterous behavior. For example, Julius Caesar's first wife, Pompeia, highlights this point well as she attempted to have private relations with Publius Clodius. Julius Caesar's mother, Aurelia, monitered Pompeia's actions and prevented their private meetings. The mere possibility of Pompeia commiting adultery caused Caesar to divorce her[3].
Augustus's campaign on women and the family
[edit]The obsession with a woman's purity, and her role as a faithful wife and dutiful mother in the family increased during the reign of Augustus. This general campaign to improve family dynamics began in 18-17 BCE[4]. Augusts new laws targeted both men and women between the ages of 20-55, who were rewarded for being in healthy relationships, and punished if not married and without children. Additionally, Augustus enforced the divorce and punishment of adulterous wives. Women under his rule could be punished in the courts for adultery and banished. This shifted a woman's body and relationships from being private, to become a public matter that could be regulated. Therefore, the palace was secured and driven by this idea that women would be returned to their proper places as chaste wives and mothers, and thus household order would be restored. Augustus went so far as to punish and exile his own daughter, Julia, for engaging in extramarrital affairs[4].
- ^ a b c d e Bauman, Richard (1992). Women and Politifcs in Ancient Rome. New York, New York: Routlege. pp. 8, 10, 15, 105.
- ^ a b Hallet, Judith (1984). Fathers and Daughters in Roman Society. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University. pp. 8, 10.
- ^ Harlow, Mary, and Ray, Laurence (2002). Growing up and Growing old in Ancient Rome. New York, New York: Rutledge. pp. 30–31.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Boatwright, Mary; Gargola, Daniel; Lenski, Noel; Talbert, Richard (2005). A Brief History of the Romans. New York: Oxford University. pp. 176–177.