User:Hard Raspy Sci/WV

Water vapor
Systematic name	Water Vapor
Liquid State	Water
Solid state	Ice
Properties^[1]
Melting point	0 °C
Boiling point	100 °C
individual gas constant	461.5 J/(kg·K)
latent heat of evaporation	2.27 MJ/kg
molecular weight	18.02 g/mol
specific heat capacity	1.84 kJ/(kg·K)

Water vapor, also aqueous vapor, is the gas phase of water. On the Earth, water vapor is one state of the water cycle within the hydrosphere.^[2] Water vapor can be produced from the evaporation of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice. Under normal atmospheric conditions,^[3] water vapor is continuously evaporating and condensing. Normally, we think water vapor is invisible to the naked eye. But the Tyndall effect shows us that our atmosphere is a largely varying colloid of air and vapor. For example, the Tyndall effect is most noticeable when car headlamps are used in fog due to the amount of light scattering.

General properties of water vapor

Evaporation/sublimation

Whenever a water molecule leaves a surface, it is said to have evaporated. Each water molecule that becomes water vapor takes a parcel of heat with it. This process is called evaporative cooling.^[4] The amount of water vapor in the air will determine how fast each molecule will return back to the surface or not. So, when a net evaporation occurs, that body of water will undergo a net cooling directly related to the loss of water.^[5]

Evaporative cooling is restricted by atmospheric conditions. The amount of water vapor in the air is referred to as humidity. Measurement of the vapor content of air is accomplished with devices known as hygrometers. The measurements are expressed as specific humidity or percent relative humidity. The temperature of the atmosphere and the water surface determines the equilibrium vapor pressure, 100% relative humidity occurs when the partial pressure of water vapor is equal to the equilibrium vapor pressure. This is often referred to as complete saturation.

Another form of evaporation is sublimation, in which water molecules become gaseous from ice instead of liquid water. Under the same principle, when ice has a higher temperature than the surrounding atmosphere, sublimation occurs. It is sublimation that accounts for the slow, mid-winter disappearance of ice and snow at temperatures too low to cause melting.

Condensation

Water vapor will only condense onto another surface when that surface is cooler than the temperature of the water vapor, or when the water vapor equilibrium in air has been exceeded. When water vapor condenses onto a surface, a net warming occurs on that surface.^[6] The water molecule brings a parcel of heat with it. In turn, the temperature of the atmosphere drops slightly.^[7] ^[8] In the atmosphere, condensation produces clouds, fog and precipitation--usually only when facilitated by cloud condensation nuclei. The dew point of an air parcel is the temperature to which it must cool before condensation in the air begins to form.

Also, a net condensation of water vapor occurs on surfaces when the temperature of the surface is at or below the dew point temperature of the atmosphere. Deposition is a type of condensation. Frost and snow are examples of deposition (or sublimation). Deposition is the direct formation of ice from water vapor.

Water vapor density

Water vapor is lighter or less dense than dry air. At equivalent temperatures it is buoyant with respect to dry air.

Water vapor density calculation at 0°C

The molecular mass or weight of water is 18.02g, as calculated from the sum of the atomic masses of its constituent atoms.

The average composition of air being 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% other. The average molecular weight of dry air is approximately 28.57g at STP

Using Avogadro's Law and the ideal gas law, both water vapor and air will have a molar volume of 22.414 l/mol at standard temperature and pressure STP

Thus the density of water vapor 0.804g/l which is significantly less than that of dry air 1.27g/l at STP.

Note STP conditions imply a temperature of 0°C, at which the ability of water to become vapor is very restricted. Its concentration in air is very low at 0°C. The red line of chart is the maximum concentration of water vapor or dew point expected for a given temperature. The concentration increases signifcantly with temperature increase approaching 100% at 100°C. However the ideal gas law could equally well be applied at 100°C, when the relative difference in density would still exist.

Water vapor's contribution to the total pressure increases as its concentration increases. Its partial pressure contribution to air pressure also increases, lowering the partial pressure contribution of the other atomspheric gases (Dalton's Law) as the total air pressure must remain constant.

Air water vapor interactions at equal temperatures

A column of dry air will be denser or heavier than a column air containing any water vapor, provided both columns are at the same temperature. So any volume of dry air will sink if placed in a larger volume of air water vapor. Also a volume air water vapor will rise or be buoyant if placed in a larger region of dry air.

General discussion

The amount of water vapor in an atmosphere exists due to the restrictions of partial pressures and temperature. Dew point temperature and relative humidity act as guidelines for the process of water vapor in the water cycle. Energy input, such as sunlight, can trigger more evaporation on an ocean surface or more sublimation on a chunk of ice on top of a mountain. The balance between condensation and evaporation gives the quantity called vapor partial pressure^[9].

The maximum partial pressure (saturation pressure) of water vapor in air varies with temperature of the air and water vapor mixture. A variety of empirical formulas exist for this quantity; the most used reference formula is the Goff-Gratch equation for the SVP over liquid water:


$\log _{10}\left(p\right)=$	$-7.90298({\frac {373.16}{T}}-1)+5.02808\log _{10}{\frac {373.16}{T}}$
	$-1.3816.10^{-7}(10^{11.344(1-{\frac {T}{373.16}})}-1)$
	$+8.1328.10^{-3}(10^{-3.49149({\frac {373.16}{T}}-1)}-1)$
	$+\log _{10}\left(1013.246\right)$

Where T, temperature of the moist air, is given in units of kelvins, and p is given in units of millibars (hectopascals).

The formula is valid from about −50 to 102 °C; however there are a very limited number of measurements of the vapor pressure of water over supercooled liquid water.^[10]

Under adverse conditions, such as when the boiling temperature of water is reached, a net evaporation will always occur during standard atmospheric conditions regardless of the percent of relative humidity. This immediate process will dispel massive amounts of water vapor into a cooler atmosphere.

Exhaled air is almost fully at equilibrium with water vapor at the body temperature. In the cold air the exhaled vapor quickly condenses, thus showing up as a fog or mist of water droplets and as condensation or frost on surfaces.

Controlling water vapor in air is a key concern in the heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) industry. Thermal comfort depends on the moist air conditions. Non-human comfort situations are called refrigeration, and also are affected by water vapor. For example many food stores, like supermarkets, utilize open chiller cabinets, or food cases, which can significantly lower the water vapor pressure (lowering humidity). This practice delivers several benefits as well as problems.

Water vapor in Earth's atmosphere

Gaseous water represents a small but environmentally significant constituent of the atmosphere. Most of it is contained in the troposphere. Besides accounting for most of Earth's natural greenhouse effect, which warms the planet, gaseous water also condenses to form clouds, which may act to warm or cool, depending on the circumstances. In general terms, atmospheric water strongly influences, and is strongly influenced by weather, and weather is modified by climate.

Fog and clouds form through condensation around cloud condensation nuclei. In the absence of nuclei, condensation will only occur at much lower temperatures. Under persistent condensation or deposition, cloud droplets or snowflakes form, which precipitate when they reach a critical mass.

The average residence time of water molecules in the troposphere is about 10 days. Water depleted by precipitation is replenished by evaporation from the seas, lakes, rivers and the transpiration of plants, and other biological and geological processes.

Measurements of vapor concentration are expressed as specific humidity or percent relative humidity. The annual mean global concentration of water vapor would yield about 25 mm of liquid water over the entire surface of the Earth if it were to instantly condense. However, the mean annual precipitation for the planet is about 1 meter, which indicates a rapid turnover of water in the air.

Radar and satellite imaging

Because water molecules absorb microwaves and other radio wave frequencies, water in the atmosphere attenuates radar signals.^[11] In addition, atmospheric water will reflect and refract signals to an extent that depends on whether it is vapor, liquid or solid.^[12]

Generally, radar signals lose strength progressively the farther they travel through the troposphere. Different frequencies attenuate at different rates, such that some components of air are opaque to some frequencies and transparent to others. Radio waves used for broadcasting and other communication tend to suffer the same effect.

Water vapor reflects radar^[13] to a less extent than do water's other two phases. In the form of drops and ice crystals, water acts as a prism, which it does not do as an individual molecule. However, the existance of water vapor in the atmosphere causes the atmosphere to act as a giant prizm.^[14]

A comparison of GOES-12 satellite images shows the distribution of atmospheric water vapor relative to the oceans, clouds and continents of the Earth. Vapor surrounds the planet but is unevenly distributed.

Lightning generation

Water vapor plays a key role in lightning production in the atmosphere. From cloud physics, usually, clouds are the real generators of static charge as found in Earth's atmosphere. But the ability, or capacity, of clouds to hold massive amounts of electrical energy is directly related to the amount of water vapor present in the local system.

The amount of water vapor directly controls the permittivity of the air. During times of low humidity, static discharge is quick and easy. During times of higher humidity, fewer static discharges occur. However, permittivity and capacitance^[15] work hand in hand to produce the megawatt outputs of lightning.

After a cloud, for instance, has started its way to becoming a lightning generator, atmospheric water vapor acts as a substance (or insulator^[16] ^[17] ) that decreases the ability of the cloud to discharge its electrical energy. Over a certain amount of time, if the cloud continues to generate and store^[18] more static electricity^[19], the barrier that was created by the atmospheric water vapor will ultimately break down^[20] from the stored electrical potential energy. This energy will be released to a locally, opposite^[21] charged region in the form of lightning. The strength of each discharge is directly related to the atmospheric permittivity, capacitance, and the source's charge generating ability.^[22]

See also, Van de Graaff generator.

Extraterrestrial water vapor

The brilliance of comet tails comes largely from water vapor. On approach to the sun, the ice many comets carry sublimates to vapor, which reflects light from the sun. Knowing a comet's distance from the sun, astronomers may deduce a comet's water content from its brilliance.^[23] Bright tails in cold and distant comets suggests carbon monoxide sublimation.

Scientists studying Mars hypothesize that if water moves about the planet, it does so as vapor.^[24] Most of the water on Mars appears to exist as ice at the northern pole. During Mars' summer, this ice sublimates, perhaps enabling massive seasonal storms to convey significant amounts of water toward the equator.^[25]

A star called CW Leonis was found to have a ring of vast quantities of water vapor circling the aging, massive star. A NASA satellite designed to study chemicals in interstellar gas clouds, made the discovery with an onboard spectrometer. Most likely, "the water vapor was vaporized from the surfaces of orbiting comets."^[26]

External links

National Science Digital Library - Water Vapor
Measuring Water Vapor : A lesson plan from the National Science Digital Library.
psu.edu science misconceptions - Bad Clouds
Calculate the condensation of your exhaled breath
Water Vapor Myths: A Brief Tutorial
AGU Water Vapor in the Climate System - 1995

Footnotes/References

^ Lide, David. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 73rd ed. 1992, CRC Press.
^ Technically called the Hydrologic cycle, from U.S. Geologic Survey. Water Cycle. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.
^ Normal atmosphere means in the Earth's troposphere under a large variety of temperatures and pressures that are naturally occuring anywhere and at anytime.
^ Schroeder, David. Thermal Physics. 2000, Addison Wesly Longman. p36
^ This remains true as long as surface water exists, or water that is capable of being evaporated exists. Otherwise, with a net heat flux on the observed body when the water completely evaporates, then the temperature of the observed body begins to rise, see Thermodynamics.
^ See Thermodynamics, as it is a process of energy transfer. This should not be confused with precipitates falling onto a surface.
^ The atmosphere is a heat bath, heat is transfered by molecular conduction.
^ Schroeder, p19.
^ Abbreviated to Vapor pressure
^ A number of other formulas are listed and compared at CIRES.
^ Skolnik, Merrill. Radar Handbook, 2nd ed. 1990, McGraw-Hill, Inc. p23.5
^ See Bright band.
^ Loosely, this is true. However more correctly, the attenuation of microwave signals due to water vapor is directly related to the frequency of the microwaves, see Skolnik.
^ Skolnik, pp2.44-2.54.
^ Shadowitz, Albert. The Electromagnetic Field. 1975, McGraw-Hill Book Company. pp165-171.
^ The term insulator is used to roughly describe the electrical properties of a gas mixture. Here, the dipole water molecules increase the reactance (impedance) and lower the permittivity of the air as humidity rises in the localized parcel of air.
^ Shadowitz, p270.
^ Shadowitz, pp172-173, 182.
^ Shadowitz, pp414-416.
^ Commonly refered as dielectric breakdown.
^ The term opposite charge in ESD and in E&M, may also include the case of largely differing eletrical potentials of the same charge. This is normally called Voltage or potential difference.
^ Shadowitz, p172.
^ ANATOMY OF COMETS, Retrieved December 2006.
^ Jakosky, Bruce, et al. "Water on Mars", April 2004, Physics Today, p71.
^ "Europe probe detects Mars water ice", January 23, 2004, Cnn.com, retrieved August 2005.
^ Lloyd, Robin. "Water Vapor, Possible Comets, Found Orbiting Star", 11 July 2001, Space.com. Retrieved December 15, 2006.

[1] Lide, David. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 73rd ed. 1992, CRC Press.

[2] Technically called the Hydrologic cycle, from U.S. Geologic Survey. Water Cycle. Retrieved on 2006-10-24.

[3] Normal atmosphere means in the Earth's troposphere under a large variety of temperatures and pressures that are naturally occuring anywhere and at anytime.

[4] Schroeder, David. Thermal Physics. 2000, Addison Wesly Longman. p36

[5] This remains true as long as surface water exists, or water that is capable of being evaporated exists. Otherwise, with a net heat flux on the observed body when the water completely evaporates, then the temperature of the observed body begins to rise, see Thermodynamics.

[6] See Thermodynamics, as it is a process of energy transfer. This should not be confused with precipitates falling onto a surface.

[7] The atmosphere is a heat bath, heat is transfered by molecular conduction.

[8] Schroeder, p19.

[9] Abbreviated to Vapor pressure

[10] A number of other formulas are listed and compared at CIRES.

[11] Skolnik, Merrill. Radar Handbook, 2nd ed. 1990, McGraw-Hill, Inc. p23.5

[12] See Bright band.

[13] Loosely, this is true. However more correctly, the attenuation of microwave signals due to water vapor is directly related to the frequency of the microwaves, see Skolnik.

[14] Skolnik, pp2.44-2.54.

[15] Shadowitz, Albert. The Electromagnetic Field. 1975, McGraw-Hill Book Company. pp165-171.

[16] The term insulator is used to roughly describe the electrical properties of a gas mixture. Here, the dipole water molecules increase the reactance (impedance) and lower the permittivity of the air as humidity rises in the localized parcel of air.

[17] Shadowitz, p270.

[18] Shadowitz, pp172-173, 182.

[19] Shadowitz, pp414-416.

[20] Commonly refered as dielectric breakdown.

[21] The term opposite charge in ESD and in E&M, may also include the case of largely differing eletrical potentials of the same charge. This is normally called Voltage or potential difference.

[22] Shadowitz, p172.

[23] ANATOMY OF COMETS, Retrieved December 2006.

[24] Jakosky, Bruce, et al. "Water on Mars", April 2004, Physics Today, p71.

[25] "Europe probe detects Mars water ice", January 23, 2004, Cnn.com, retrieved August 2005.

[26] Lloyd, Robin. "Water Vapor, Possible Comets, Found Orbiting Star", 11 July 2001, Space.com. Retrieved December 15, 2006.

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v t e Meteorological data and variables
General	Adiabatic processes Advection Buoyancy Lapse rate Lightning Surface solar radiation Surface weather analysis Visibility Vorticity Wind Wind shear
Condensation	Cloud Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) Fog Convective condensation level (CCL) Lifting condensation level (LCL) Precipitable water Precipitation Water vapor
Convection	Convective available potential energy (CAPE) Convective inhibition (CIN) Convective instability Convective momentum transport Conditional symmetric instability Convective temperature (T_c) Equilibrium level (EL) Free convective layer (FCL) Helicity K Index Level of free convection (LFC) Lifted index (LI) Maximum parcel level (MPL) Bulk Richardson number (BRN)
Temperature	Dew point (T_d) Dew point depression Dry-bulb temperature Equivalent temperature (T_e) Forest fire weather index Haines Index Heat index Humidex Humidity Relative humidity (RH) Mixing ratio Potential temperature (θ) Equivalent potential temperature (θ_e) Sea surface temperature (SST) Temperature anomaly Thermodynamic temperature Vapor pressure Virtual temperature Wet-bulb temperature Wet-bulb globe temperature Wet-bulb potential temperature Wind chill
Pressure	Atmospheric pressure Baroclinity Barotropicity Pressure gradient Pressure-gradient force (PGF)
Velocity	Maximum potential intensity