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Meetei Mayek
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Not to be confused with Meitei nationalism.
Meitei religion revivalism movement
(Sanamahi movement)
Religious symbol of Sanamahism, the traditional Meitei religion
Native name Meitei: Meitei Laining Hingatlakpa
English nameRevivalism of Sanamahism
Time20th[a]-21st centuries
LocationManipur and other Northeast Indian states
Also known asSanamahi movement
Typereligious movement
Themerevivalism

The Meitei religion revivalism movement, also known as the Sanamahi movement, is a religious movement of the revivalism of traditional Meitei religion (officially called Sanamahism) in Meitei society. Basically, it is the practice of giving more priority to the Meitei deities described as "traditional" and "indigenous" over or in place of deities affiliated to other faiths, particularly Hindu deities.[1][2][3]

The movement spread the awareness of the Meitei identity among the Meiteis. It was formally pioneered by a Meitei philosopher from Cachar named Naoriya Phullo in 1930, with the establishment of a socio-politico-religious group named Apokpa Marup.[4][5][6][7]

Most Meitei religion revivalists were born and brought up in families following Vaishnavite Hinduism.[2][8][5] So, their religious conversions and cultural transformations are considered "personal" as well as "social".[2] This revivalism movement has been continuously growing since its inception in the early 20th century, especially after the 1970s.[9][2]

The revivalists of the Meitei religion often had struggles with other religious communities, most notably the Meitei Brahmins.[10][1] Unfortunately, the exploitative practices of some Hindu priests (Brahmins) brought hostility towards themselves by other groups of people. The movement was compelled to stand against the over-enthusiastic Brahmins for "atrocious imposition of the Hindu precepts".[6]

For several centuries, the Meitei ethnicity was predominant in Manipur, but due to immigration of people of various communities from different regions of the Indian subcontinent, Manipur's demographics change the Meiteis and other indigenous communities into minorities. This is one of the factors that enlightened a sense of urgency to revivalism to the Meitei people.[1]

The "Apokpa Marup", a spearheading religious association, initiated the revivalism movement of the Meitei religion, which was the begining of the "Sanamahi Movement", named after the Meitei deity, Sanamahi. This organization aimed to renounce Hinduism and revive traditional Meitei religion, culture and language, to bring unity between the already Hinduised Meitei people and the then animistic hilly tribal people.[11]

Causes

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In the 18th century, King Pamheiba (better known as Garibniwaz) imposed Hindu religion on the common Meitei people en masse. Strict measures were enforced to follow a Hindu lifestyle, like punishing anyone consuming beef meat.[12] There were some revolts against the King's actions, but all these were suppressed. Bengali script was enforced to be used and the then existing Meitei script was banned, by burning every possibly found books written in Meitei text. The traditional Meitei rites and rituals of local Meitei deities were either restricted or conducted by the migrant Brahmins, thereby pushing the maibas and the maibis aside the periphery. Meitei deities and traditional places of worship were re-named to be matching with the Hindu religion and mythology. The orthodox casteism custom introduced by Hindu culture projected the tribals of hills as an unclean and uncultured people, resulting in socio-cultural divide between the hill people (tribals) and the valley people (Meiteis).[13][14][7] Due to the religious violences to the Meitei people in the past, there exist the feelings of disagreement among the populace, due to which the feeling of un-belongingness and strangeness towards the non native culture of outsiders, ignite the revivalism movement.[15][7]

Significances of traditional language and script

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Further information: Meitei linguistic purism movement

The lingua franca of the revivalism movement is Meitei language (officially called Manipuri).[1]

The Emblem of Manipur, officially used by the Government of Manipur, depicts Kangla Sha, a Meitei God, with his name written in Meitei script

The Meitei religion revivalists also tried to replace the use of the Bengali script for the Meitei language by re-using the formerly suppressed Meitei script (religiously termed as the Sanamahi script) to promote the ongoing ethno-religious revivalism.[5][3] In the early 1980s, some revivalist organizations, including but not limited to the Apokpa Marup and the Meitei National Front, started attempts to abolish the usage of the Bengali script, for writing the Meitei language as they perceived the adoption of Bengal's Vaishnavite faith and the Bengali script for the Meitei language as part of the cultural surrender that undermined the Meitei identity.[16] One major purpose of the revivalist leaders of the Sanamahi Movement trying to resurrect, promote and popularise the ancient Meitei script is to sincerely discover the ancient Meitei scriptures and old Meitei literature, to know more about the worship culture of Meitei deities like Pakhangba, Leimaren, Sanamahi and Umang Lais.[6][3]

Significance of the Kangla

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The Director General, Assam Rifles, Lt. Gen. Bhupender Singh handing over the keys of Kangla Fort to Manipur Chief Minister Okram Ibobi Singh in the presence of the Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh in 2004

For more than a century (1891-2004), Kangla, the historic holy site of the Meiteis, was occupied and used as a military base point, by the British Army during Raj, then by the Assam Rifles during the period of the postcolonial Indian state. In 2004, revivalists succeed in their struggles to attain the Kangla from the military occupants and started to restore its religious significance as the centre of holy rites and rituals.[2]

Sensitivity of terms

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In the year 1938, the Nikhil Hindu Manipuri Mahasabha (NHMM) changed its name into Nikhil Manipuri Mahasabha (NMM), by discarding the term "Hindu".[17]

Meitei religion revivalists often use English terms like "traditional", "cultural" and "indigenous", which have a particular cosmopolitan appeal[18] eventually becoming one of the factors to demand to get the Scheduled Tribe (ST) status of the Meiteis from the Indian Republic.[2]

In rare cases, activists might have used the term "Meitei Dharma" to describe their faith. However, popularly, the term "Meitei Laining" (Meitei for 'Meitei faith') is used.[2]

As a part of the movement, many Meitei men started replacing the title-name "Singh" (denoting the person as a Hindu, particularly in Meitei society) by re-using "Meitei".[19][3] For example, Denechandra Meitei, Loken Meitei, Ningombam Bupenda Meitei, Romi Meitei, Waikhom Gojen Meitei, etc.

“The Manipuri contingent at the recently concluded National Games in Pune had more Meiteis than Singh.”

— Syed Zubair Ahmed, TOI, 11-2-94[3]

Many people started giving up their Hindu names and reusing traditional Meitei names. A trend in Meitei cinema have started in which the characters in the stories have traditional Meitei nomenclature.[20]

Festivals

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The once predominantly grandiose Hindu festivals like Saraswati Puja, Rath Yatra, Durga Puja, Diwali, etc. are seen to be replaced by the traditional Meitei festivals in present day times.[21]

Not anti-Hindu

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The traditional Meitei deities are also worshipped by the Hindu Meiteis, though the Sanamahism followers and the revivalists don't worship Hindu deities.[4][6] So, there is no ground to refer to the activists of the Sanamahi Movement as "anti-Hindu". Still if a few people engage in anti-Hindu or even anti-Indian activities, it is only for personal or political reasons.[6][b][7]

As the Meiteis have followed Hinduism so widely, the reversal or re-conversion to traditional faith is not an easy task. Still, a part of the Meitei population are not agreeing within the community as a part of revivalism movement.[6]

Supporters and Opposers

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Many people support and oppose the revivalism movement mildly. However, sometimes, there are extremities in supporting as well as opposing the revivalism movement. Dr C.H. Ibotombi, a revivalist leader, says that the Sanamahi religion of the Meiteis is "is the most scientific" and it will also spread to other parts of the nation. Some feel the revivalism is in fact a "revolt against Brahminical superiority and Meiteis' search for identity".[3]

On the other hand, opposers perceive the movement as a "dangerous parochial trait", that could disintegrate the fabric of Meitei society. Mairembam Koireng Singh, former Chief Minister of Manipur was an opponent of the Meitei religion movement. He said, "the Sanamahists are diverting Hinduism to the patriarchal faith...to divide the Meitei society."[3]

Defending to the accusations by some politicians as the revivalism movement being related to or associated with the insurgency in Manipur, Dr. Sukumar Chang, a research scholar, said that the Meitei religion revivalism movement started long time before the onset of insurgency in the the Manipur valley and the movement is actually caused by the widespread dissatisfaction among the Manipuris (Meiteis), surrounded as they are "by the Christian tribals, Muslim Pangans (Pangals), and hardcore Vaishnavites".[22]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Opinions of scholars vary as some state that the movement start in the 1930s while some say 1970s.
  2. ^ Promoting deities of religion other than Hinduism or not just worshipping Hindu deities doesn't necessarily mean "anti-Hindu" or "anti-India".

Bibliography

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  • Boas, Franz and Ruth Benedict (eds). 1938. General Anthropology. New York: D. C. Heath and Company.
  • Bronner, Simon J (ed.). 2007. The Meaning of Folklore: The Analytical Essays of Alan Dundes. Logan: Utah State University Press.
  • Das, Shiva Tosh. 1989. Life Style, Indian Tribes: Locational Practice, vol. II. New Delhi.
  • Devi, Rajkumari Tamphasana. 1974. Manipuri Lok Sahitya. Manipur: Rajkumari Tamphasana Devi.
  • Hodson, Thomas Callan. 1908. The Meitheis. Delhi: Low Price Publications.
  • Laisram, Rena. 2009. Early Meitei History: Religion Society and the Manipuri Puyas. New Delhi: Akansha Publishing House.
  • Parratt, Saroj Nalini Arambam. 2005. The Court Chronicle of the Kings of Manipur. The Cheitharon Kumpapa. London and New York: Routledge.
  • Premchand. Nongthombam (ed.). 2008. Manipuri Folklore: Towards a Performance Approach', Indian Folklife, 30: 1-23.
  • Rodriguez, Jeanette and Ted Fortier. 2007. Cultural Memory: Resistance, Faith, and Identity. Austin: University of Texas Press.
  • Sairem, Nilabir. 1991. The Revivalist Movement of Sanamahism', in Naorem Sanajaoba (ed.), Manipur Past and Present: The Ordeals and Heritage of a Civilisation, vol. II, pp. 109-26. New Delhi: Mittal Publications.
  • Singh, Khuraijam Bijoykumar. 2005. Sanamahi Movement among the Meiteis of Manipur: A Sociological Study of a Socio-Religious Movement'. PhD Dissertation, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi.
  • Singh, Moirangthem Kirti. 1993. Folk Culture of Manipur. New Delhi: Manas Publications.
  • Yambem, Sanamani. 1976. 'Nupi Lan: Manipur Women's Agitation, 1939, Economic and Political Weekly, 11(8): 325-31.

References

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  1. ^ a b c d Wouters, Jelle J. P. (2022). Vernacular Politics in Northeast India: Democracy, Ethnicity, and Indigeneity. Oxford University Press. p. 201. ISBN 978-0-19-286346-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Wouters, Jelle J. P. (2022). Vernacular Politics in Northeast India: Democracy, Ethnicity, and Indigeneity. Oxford University Press. p. 202. ISBN 978-0-19-286346-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Prakash, Col Ved (2007). Encyclopaedia of North-East India. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 1594. ISBN 978-81-269-0706-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  4. ^ a b Devi, Lairenlakpam Bino (2002). The Lois of Manipur: Andro, Khurkhul, Phayeng and Sekmai. India. p. 46. ISBN 978-81-7099-849-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  5. ^ a b c Bhaumik, Subir (2009-12-10). Troubled Periphery: The Crisis of India's North East. India. p. 49. ISBN 978-81-321-0479-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  6. ^ a b c d e f Prakash, Ved (2008). Terrorism in India's North-east: A Gathering Storm. India. p. 679. ISBN 978-81-7835-662-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  7. ^ a b c d Devy, G. N.; Davis, Geoffrey V.; Chakravarty, K. K. (2015-08-12). Knowing Differently: The Challenge of the Indigenous. Taylor and Francis. p. 135. ISBN 978-1-317-32569-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  8. ^ Devi, Lairenlakpam Bino (2002). The Lois of Manipur: Andro, Khurkhul, Phayeng and Sekmai. India. p. 47. ISBN 978-81-7099-849-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  9. ^ (c.f. Singh, 2015; Singh, 2012)
  10. ^ (Singh, 2005; Sairem 1991; Parratt and Parratt, 1999; Lokendra, 1998)
  11. ^ Subramanian, K. S. (2015-10-05). State, Policy and Conflicts in Northeast India. Taylor and Francis. p. 49. ISBN 978-1-317-39650-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  12. ^ Devy, G. N.; Davis, Geoffrey V.; Chakravarty, K. K. (2015-08-12). Knowing Differently: The Challenge of the Indigenous. Taylor & Francis. p. 126. ISBN 978-1-317-32569-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  13. ^ Devy, G. N.; Davis, Geoffrey V.; Chakravarty, K. K. (2015-08-12). Knowing Differently: The Challenge of the Indigenous. Taylor & Francis. p. 127. ISBN 978-1-317-32569-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  14. ^ Devy, G. N.; Davis, Geoffrey V.; Chakravarty, K. K. (2015-08-12). Knowing Differently: The Challenge of the Indigenous. Taylor & Francis. p. 130. ISBN 978-1-317-32569-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  15. ^ Devy, G. N.; Davis, Geoffrey V.; Chakravarty, K. K. (2015-08-12). Knowing Differently: The Challenge of the Indigenous. Taylor & Francis. p. 128. ISBN 978-1-317-32569-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  16. ^ Bhaumik, Subir (2009-12-10). Troubled Periphery: The Crisis of India's North East. India. p. 79. ISBN 978-81-321-0479-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  17. ^ Subramanian, K. S. (2015-10-05). State, Policy and Conflicts in Northeast India. Taylor and Francis. p. 49. ISBN 978-1-317-39650-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  18. ^ (c.f. Li, 2000)
  19. ^ "Singh Title in the Meitei name of Manipur By Okram Kumar". e-pao.net. Subsequently the 'Sing(h) title' was used after the name of almost all the Meitei males. The present social significance of the Sing(h) title is to denote the follower of Hindu faith, other than the Brahmin whose names are suffixed with the title 'Sharma', in the Meitei society...... Now we see the discouraging of using the Sing(h) title by the younger generations.
  20. ^ Devy, G. N.; Davis, Geoffrey V.; Chakravarty, K. K. (2015-08-12). Knowing Differently: The Challenge of the Indigenous. Taylor & Francis. p. 136. ISBN 978-1-317-32569-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  21. ^ Devy, G. N.; Davis, Geoffrey V.; Chakravarty, K. K. (2015-08-12). Knowing Differently: The Challenge of the Indigenous. Taylor & Francis. p. 137. ISBN 978-1-317-32569-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  22. ^ Prakash, Col Ved (2007). Encyclopaedia of North-East India. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 1595. ISBN 978-81-269-0706-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
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