User:Hammy64000/Patriarchy

See also: Virgin birth of Jesus

The mythology of many other cultures and religions includes stories of miraculous births, for example the births of Buddha, born from married parents, and Mithra, formed out of solid rock. Some argue that since these were not the result of virginal conception they are not comparable to the Christian story. Another approach acknowledges the similarities and attempts to explain them. Criticism exists within the Christian tradition as well, often based on the conviction that a "Biblical historical critical" approach to theology will lead to a better understanding of the Christian faith.

In the attempt to explain parallels between miraculous births in myth and religion, the focus is on stories that have been proposed in the past as actual sources of the Christian story of the birth of Jesus. The old "history of religions" approach concluded that Christianity “borrowed” from earlier traditions. According to Unitarian (see Unitarianism) Thomas Boslooper, this approach has been misleading.

According to another view, there is a relationship between the traditions; not in the details, but in certain grand themes such as the anticipation of an exceptional child who will bring peace, relief from oppression and abundance in nature, among other benefits. In many traditions, the child will usher in a new age. The emblem of mother and child has been part of high religious thought for at least 5000 years. Similarities between the stories of miraculous birth have included signs and wonders in nature, miraculous stories of conception and birth, and potential danger to the child.

Etymology

A virgin is a person of either sex who has not had sexual intercourse. Virgin can also mean a chaste or umarried woman or maiden; or an unmarried woman who has taken religious vows of chastity.

A common argument concerning the term "virgin birth" follows: "According to Matthew 1:22-23, Isaiah prophesied about the virgin birth in Isaiah 7:14. However, some in the scholarly community...deny that Isaiah was prophesying about a virgin birth. Those who are opposed to the interpretation of Isaiah 7:14 as a prophetic passage referring to a virgin birth claim that ‘almâ does not mean “virgin,” and that the word used exclusively for “ virgin” is the Hebrew word betûlâ."

The Christian point of view is that both of these claims are inaccurate. "A careful look at the etymological and semantical aspects of these two words actually documents the fact that there is no single-word-meaning for either Hebrew term."

Related theological terms

In Catholicism, the Incarnation is the mystery and the dogma of the Word (or Logos) made Flesh. Incarnation is also used to describe the births of avatars in Buddhism and Hinduism, for example.

In Catholic theology, "the word Logos is the term by which Christian theology in the Greek language designates the Word of God, or Second Person of the Blessed Trinity."

The Logos idea was first developed by Heraclitus, one of the pre-Socratic Philosophers (535-475 BCE). Heraclitus proposed that all things are one and that the Logos, probably associated with fire, was the basic constituent of things.

In Hindu mythology, avatar refers to the descent of a deity to the earth in an incarnate form or some manifest shape; the incarnation of a god.

Assyrian and Babylonian mythology

Similarities to the Christian story of the Virgin Birth of Jesus have been noted in Buddhism and the Krishna tradition, as well as the Assyro-Babylonian, Zoroastrian, and Mithraic traditions. The Assyrian and Babylonian concept of origins expressed procreation first in “relationships between gods and goddesses resulting in other gods and goddesses," such as Ea and Damkina assisted by Apsu giving birth to Marduk. The Akkadian “Creation Epic”, the most likely parallel to the Biblical virgin birth, describes the birth of Marduk in this way: “Ea, having overheard the plan of the primordial deities to destroy the other gods, deceived Apsu and Mummu and put them to death. ‘Ea, his triumph over his enemies secured, in his sacred chamber in profound peace he rested.’ (ANET, p. 61, lines 74—75.) Then he took over the place which Apsu had used for his cult.” It was here that Marduk, the “most potent and wisest of gods” was created in the heart of Apsu and “He who begot him was Ea, his father...”

According to Norman Lockyer, Ea, Ia or Oannes was the primal god of Babylon. He was a ‘Great God, Maker of Men, Potter, Artist and Workman.’ He formed a Triad with Anu and Bil—the two poles of heaven and the equator. " Oannes first appeared from the sea to teach the Babylonians the art of writing, sciences and crafts, the building of cities, the surveying of land, the observation of the stars, and the sowing and havesting of all kinds of grains and plants. He was believed to have been "reincarnated" several times. Berossos, priest of the Temple of Bel, in Babylon, knew of as many as six such reincarnations.

In addition, “procreative deities, either male or female, played a part in the birth of other deities or great personages, such as the Ugaritic tradition of Lady Asherah, ‘the Progenitress of the gods’; Mami, 'the Mother-womb, the one who creates mankind'; Father Nanna, the 'begetter of gods and men'; the Assyrian traditions that Tukulti-Urta was created by the gods in the womb of his mother and that Sennacherib's birth was assisted by Ea, who provided a 'spacious womb', and Assur, 'the god, my begetter'; and the North Arabian myth of the mother goddess who was responsible for Dusares."

Egyptian mythology

The belief in the conception of Horus by Isis"is coeval with the beginnings of history in Egypt". Horus' conception and birth were understood in terms of the Egyptian doctrine of parthenogenesis, which was connected with the goddess Neith of Sais centuries before the birth of Jesus. In Upper Egypt, Net was worshipped at Seni and represented with the head of a lioness painted green, with the titles: "Father of fathers and Mother of mothers," and "net-Menhit, the great lady, lady of the south, the great cow who gave birth to the sun, who made the germ of gods and men, the mother of Ra, who raised up Tem in primeval time, who existed when nothing else had being, and who created that which exists after she had come into being."

"Many of the attributes of Isis, the God-mother, the mother of Horus; and of Neith, the goddess of Sais are identical with those of Mary the Mother of Christ." Early Christian stories in the Apocryphal Gospels, which record the wanderings of the Virgin and Child in Egypt are similar to stories found on the Metternich Stele texts about the life of Isis. Also, the pictures and sculptures of Isis suckling her child Horus are the foundation for Christian figurines and paintings of the Madonna and Child. Of course, the legend of the birth of Horus has many elements not found even in the Apocryphal Gospels. Egyptian texts mention numerous forms of Horus. In one he is "Heru-sa Ast, sa-Asar, or Horus, son of Isis, son of Osiris." Isis is described in the Hymn to Osiris, as finding and restoring the body of her dead husband, and using magical words given her by Thoth to restore him to life. Then, by uniting with Osiris she conceives Horus. Horus represented the rising sun and in this respect was comparable to the Greek Apollo.”

There were at least twenty other Horuses in the Egyptian pantheon, so in the story of Isis and Osiris Horus is "sometimes known as Harsiesis, to distinguish him from the others. He is depicted as a falcon, or with a falcon's head. He eventually avenged Osiris' death and reclaimed the throne, ruling peacefully...Herakhty, or 'Horus of the Horizon', was a sun god who rose each morning on the eastern horizon. He was often identified with the sun god, Ra, and was eventually absorbed by him, forming Ra-Herakhty."

Lineal descent from Ra, whether by birth or by marriage, was claimed by all kings of Egypt at least since User-ka-f, first king of the Vth Dynasty, who was high priest of Re at Heliopolis. An imporant part of this tradition was the legend of the God Re generating with the wife of a priest. "The newborn child was regarded as a god incarnate, and later with appropriate ceremonies he was presented to Re or Amen-Re, in his temple, where the god accepted it and acknowledged it to be his child." This tradition was later inscribed in a stereotyped form in temple reliefs.

Many texts mention different attributes of Isis. These were combined into a single narrative by Plutarch in the first century AD. In her aspect of protector of Egypt and its people, Isis is depicted with huge outspread wings. She taught women to grind corn, to spin and to weave, and she taught the people how to cure illnesses. She instituted the rite of marriage. When her consort, Osiris, left Egypt to travel the world, Isis ruled the country in his absence. "The hieroglyph for her name is the image of a throne, and her lap came to be seen as the throne of Egypt. Because of her fame Isis eventually absorbed the qualities of almost all the other goddesses; "she was a great mother goddess, a bird goddess, a goddess of the underworld who brought life to the dead, and a goddess of the primeval waters...Her following spread beyond Egypt to Greece and throughout the Roman Empire...(lasting) from before 3000 BC until well into Christian times.

The pseudepigraphal and apocryphal traditions

After the first century, traditions flourished that represented the thinking of that time, and also preserved source material for many of the ideas in the "theological writings of the church fathers." In their present form the pseudepigraphal writings contained in the Sibylline Oracles include literature written from the second century B.C. through the sixth century of the Christian era. They contain some material relevant to the birth and infancy of Jesus. But this passage in the Oracles, Book III, probably represents the hopes of pre-Christian Alexandrian Jews.

"Be of good cheer, O maiden, and exult; for the Eternal, who made heaven and earth has given thee joy, and he will dwell in thee, and for thee shall be an immortal light. And wolves and lambs promiscuously shall eat grass in the mountains, and among the kids shall leopards graze, And wandering bears shall lodge among the calves, and the carnivorous lion shall eat straw in the manger like the ox, and little children lead them with a band. For tame will be on earth the beasts he made, And with young babes will dragons fall asleep, and no harm, for God’s hand will be on them." (932-944, p. 108.)

Later, the church fathers refer to subsequent books in the Oracles that are clear allusions to Christ, and probably dated from the close of the second or beginning of the third century A.D. The first Christian theologians demonstrated in their writings their knowledge of such non-canonical sources.

The Apocryphal Gospels contain much that is pertinent. The Apocryphal literature departs from the Christian canon and its legends have many elements similar to Pagan stories representing popular beliefs of the church from the second Christian century on through the Middle Ages.

Buddha and the apocryphal legends

The stories of Buddha’s unusual birth developed through the centuries, just as the Christian tradition of Jesus' birth did. But in Buddhism, unusual birth traditions were connected with the concept of "avatar." Some accounts tell of the descent of the future Bodhisatta from the "Tusita Body" into the mother’s womb, the appearance of the Buddha in the mother as a shining gem, and the accompanying wonders in the natural world…In the Mahapadana-sutta, Digha ii. 12, is the description of the incarnation of the Vipassi Buddha.

"Now Vipassi, brethren, when, as Bodhisat, he ceased to belong to the hosts of the heaven of Delight, descended into his mother’s womb mindful and self-possessed."

According to this text, the Vapassi Buddha was the first of six incarnations to precede Gautama. The others listed are Sikhi, Vessabhu, Kakusandha, Konagamana, and Kassapa. In the early tradition it was believed that conception took place with the combined contributions of the father, the mother and the "genius," which is to say, the being to be born, Gandhabbo. "It is obvious that ancient pre-Christian Buddhism knows nothing of the virginity of the mother of Buddha." In the avatar tradition, according to Edward J. Jurji, "Nine avataras of Vishnu have 'descended' from time to time, and a tenth, the Kalki-avatara (see, Dashavatara) has long been expected." (as quoted by Boslooper)

In the Christian apocryphal legends, similarities are apparent between "the portrait of Jesus in the apocryphal Gospels and the Buddhist birth narratives…but the closest affinity exists between the apocryphal portrait of Mary and the Buddhist’s Gautama." In both traditions the child to be born chooses his mother beforehand; the mother is supreme among women; the White Elephant or White Bird (reference to Mary’s conception in Hanna) is the symbol of conception, and the gem is the analogy for the unborn child (in Maya a shining stone, in Hanna a white pearl); the term is ten months; wonders occur throughout the natural world; the infant is brilliant as the sun and pure and undefiled at birth; he announces at birth who he is; and the newborn child is received immediately with royal pomp and ceremony.

The most popular legendary account of the birth of Buddha is in the Nidanakatha Jataka (see, Jataka tales) which accounted for the lives of Buddha in previous incarnations. In this account, the “Great Being” chose the time and place of his birth, the tribe into which he would be born, and who his mother would be. In the time chosen by him, Maya, his mother, fell asleep and dreamed that four archangels carried her to the Himalayan Mountains where their queens bathed and dressed her. In her dream the Great Being soon entered her womb from her side, in the form of a white elephant. When she woke, she told her dream to the Raja, who summoned sixty-four eminent Brahmans to interpret it.

“The Brahmans said, ‘Be not anxious, O king! Your queen has conceived: and the fruit of her womb will be a man-child; it will not be a woman-child. You will have a son. And he, if he adopts a householder’s life, will become a king, a Universal Monarch; but if, leaving his home, he adopt the religious life, he will become a Buddha, who will remove from the world the veils of ignorance and sin.'"

It is told that the mother and son were watched over by four angels, and of the necessity of the mother's early death, of how a "Bodisat leaves his mother's womb erect and unsoiled, like a preacher descending from a pulpit or a man from a ladder, erect, stretching out his hands and feet, unsoiled by any impurities from contact with his mother's womb, pure and fair, and shining like a gem placed on fne muslin of Benares." Also we read, "Buddha's mother was the "very best of women."

"Then is described how at his birth he took seven great steps and at the seventh he shouted, 'I am the chief of the world,' how he at birth held in his hand some medicine that became for him the drug by which he later healed the sick and blind and deaf, how at birth he wished to give a gift but was presented one himself by his mother, and how lastly he sang the song of victory.'

In the Apocryphal Book of James an Angel told Ioacim and Anna, the parents of Mary, that Anna would have a child. Later, we are told, when Mary was six months old she was strong enough to walk seven steps. "From three years of age, she was brought up in the Temple, as a dove that is nurtured: and she received food from the hand of an angel" (viii.1, ANT, p. 42).

Mary was under the protection of Joseph when an angel appeared to her and told her that "a power of the Lord shall overshadow thee: wherefore also that holy thing which shall be born of thee shall be called the Son of the Highest. And thou shalt call his name Jesus: for he shall save his people from their sins. And Mary said: behold the handmaid of the Lord is before him: be it unto me according to thy word." (xi. 2, ANT, p. 43.)

Hinduism

In the myth of Krishna “the divine Vishnu himself descended into the womb of Devaki and was born as her son, Vasudeva, i.e., Krishna. Also, before the birth of Krishna, no one “could bear to gaze upon Devaki, from the light that invested her, and those who contemplated her radiance felt their minds disturbed.”

It is widely believed that the avatars taken by Vishnu on earth were virgin "births". In the Mahabharata epic, Karna was born to Queen Kunti by the god Surya, before her marriage to King Pandu.[6] Because she called him, the god of the Sun gave her a child, but restored her virginity, as she was as yet unmarried. After marriage, Kunti's husband, King Pandu, was cursed by a childless Brahmin, who declared that if the King were to embrace either of his two wives, then he would die. Kunti called upon the charm she had used to bear Karna in order to call other gods to her and her co-wife. In this way, the Pandavas were bestowed upon them by the gods. The implication, then, is that all six of these heroes (the five Pandavas and their brother Karna, the tragic antihero) were the results of pure, virgin births.

Many centuries later, the poet Kabir was also said to have been born of a virgin widow (a Brahmin), through the palm of her hand. Like Karna, Kabir was sent down the river in a basket; he was found and adopted by a family of Muslim weavers, downstream.[7] [8] This (presumably posthumous) account—which depicts Kabir as secretly descended from Brahmins—was intended to legitimise Kabir's religious authority in the eyes of the Hindu population who venerated his works. This story is absent from Muslim and Sikh accounts of Kabir's work.

In Hinduism, Kalki, an avatar of Vishnu, is expected to appear at the end of Kali Yuga, the time period in which we currently exist. (see Vishnu)

Mithra and Mithras

In Indian mythology, Mithra is known as Mitra. He was originally a god of contracts and friendship and was a forerunner of the Graeco-Roman god Mithras. In Iran, he developed into the protector of truth. Before the time of Zoroaster, he was associated with Ahura Mazda, the principle of good. As a consequence of Zoroaster's reforms to Iranian religion, Mithra was ousted from power and Ahura Mazda became supreme. In the more ancient Indian Vedas Mithra was the god of light, invoked under the name of Varuna, and was called "the Light of the World." He was the mediator between heaven and Earth.

"The light bursting from the heavens, which were conceived as a solid vault, became, in the mythology of the Magi, Mithra born from the rock." (Cumont, as quoted by Boslooper) Justin Martyr "alluded to Mithra’s birth from a rock, and the Protevangelium Jacobi states that Jesus was born in a cave." This suggests that the Mithraic tradition was known in the Christian world and that it was associated with apocryphal tradition. It is also possible that Luke’s story of the shepherds has its background in the Mithraic legend, but the most obvious similarity is seen in the fact that Christians celebrate the birth of Christ during the Mithraic celebration of the new birth of the Sun, on December 25.

Mithraism "learned" astrology from the Chaldeans after the Chaldean conquest, and continued as an astronomical religion. In the Hellenistic period it took on its final form. Mithra was assimilated into Graeco-Roman beliefs in the first century BC as Mithras. He was an ancient and highly honored god of Roman Paganism, where he was worshipped for more than 300 years as "the soldier's god."

Zoroaster

Zoroasterianism, the religion of ancient Persia, has the closest resemblance to Judaism and Christianity, perhaps because its beliefs were in force before the Babylonian captivity of the Kingdom of Judah. Zoroaster’s name has been adopted from the Greek and Latin Zoroastres. The ancient form of his name in the Avesta is Zarathustra. His native country was probably Media in Western Iran, (possibly in modern Azerbaijan), but his ministry took place in eastern Iran, especially in the region of Bactria, about 1200 BC. Zoroaster was originally a Magian priest, and under the reforms he instituted, Mithra became one of the Yazatas (Worshipful Ones), the angels or lesser divine beings.

Zoroaster, whose faith was a type of monotheism, taught that a conflict between the opposing forces of light and darkness would last for 12,000 years, divided into eons of 3000 years each. His birth marked the beginning of the final eon, which was to be presided over by Zoroaster himself and his three sons who would be born after his death. The last of these would be the Messiah, or Saoshyant. The purpose of Zoroaster’s coming was to guide man, a free agent, to chose the right so that the world may become perfect. He taught that there would be a final battle between good and evil; the good would be victorious and the Messiah (Saoshyant) would rule. His reign would be accompanied by the resurrection of the dead and the judgment of the world.

"It was said that (Zoroaster's) birth was foretold from the beginning of time, and that the moment he was born, he burst out laughing and the whole universe rejoiced with him." After his birth evil demons tried to destroy him, but with Ahura Mazda's protection, he survived all attempts on his life. The Zoroastrian tradition differs from the Christian one because the divine only assists in the preservation of Zoroaster’s seed. "The central scripture, the Avesta and also the Pahlavi texts include the tradition that the 'kingly glory' is handed onward from ruler to ruler and from saint to saint for the purpose of illuminating ultimately the soul of the Zarathushtra." Also the scriptures clearly allude to conjugal relations between his parents, during which evil spirits try to prevent his conception. But according to later tradition, Zoroaster's mother, Dughdova, was a virgin when she conceived Zoroaster by a shaft of light.

Zoroaster performed numerous miracles, winning over a king to his religion, who then tried to convert others. "Tradition says that he was murdered at the age of 77 while at his prayers."

Greco-Roman mythology

Perseus: Perseus was the son of Danaë. She was locked away while a young girl, to prevent her having children, but Zeus came to her in the form of a shower of gold and impregnated her. The shower of gold has from ancient times been interpreted as a reference to bribery of those in charge of keeping her. The Greek Anthology has the following: ZEUS, turned to gold, piercing the brazen chamber of Danae, cut the knot of intact virginity.

Greco-Roman and Hellenistic literature is rich in the tradition of birth among the gods. The legend of Perseus, whose mother conceived him by Jupiter in the form of a golden shower seems to be the basic legend, but there are many others. Stories of the creation of gods and goddesses by other gods and goddesses include the traditions of generation of Apollo by Zeus and Leto, of Theseus by Zeus and Maia, of Dionysus by Zeus and Semele, of Dionysus Zagreus by Zeus and Persephone, and of Persephone by Zeus and Demeter. The birth of gods by generation of a god with a mortal woman include the birth of Hercules by the union of Zeus and Alcmena and that of Pan by Hermes with a shepherdess. Finally, heroes created by generation of a god with a mortal include Ion by Apollo and Creusa, Romulus by Mars and Aemila, Asclepius by Apollo and Coronis, and Helen by Zeus and Leda. Such legends may suggest a Greek background for the term "Son of God."

Included in the legends of heroes would be Alexander the Great, "who journeyed to the Oasis of Amen in order that he might be recognized as the god’s son and thus become a legitimate and recognized king of Egypt. Inscriptions show that he and the Ptolemies after him had the incidents of their birth regularly depicted in temple reliefs.”

For the Greeks, divine and human parentage were not mutually exclusive, and according to Norden, the miraculous stories of the origin of the Caesars belong to "the Hellenistic virgin motif." (as cited by Boslooper) Augustus was said to have had a miraculous birth and a childhood filled with many portents and signs.

“The Emperor Augustus was praised as the Savior of the world…(but) the idea of Savior was not unique or original with Augustus himself. Before him the same title was given Seleucid and other Hellenistic kings. Throughout this period there were frequent longings for a savior from the present troubles.”

The hope for a savior was expressed in Virgil’s “Fourth Eclogue,” which some later claimed was a reference to Jesus Christ. Basically, a new era is to come in fulfillment of an older oracle.

"...Now the last age by Cumae's Sibyl sung Has come and gone, and the majestic roll Of circling centuries begins anew: Justice returns, returns old Saturn's reign, With a new breed of men sent down from heaven. Only do thou, at the boy's birth in whom The iron shall cease, the golden race arise, Befriend him, chaste Lucina; 'tis thine own Apollo reigns...

"For thee, O boy, First shall the earth, untilled, pour freely forth Her childish gifts, the gadding ivy-spray With foxglove and Egyptian bean-flower mixed, And laughing-eyed acanthus. Of themselves, Untended, will the she-goats then bring home Their udders swollen with milk, while flocks afield Shall of the monstrous lion have no fear..."

Jesus of Nazareth

For Christians Jesus Christ is the annointed or chosen one. The central figure of the faith was conceived, based on the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke, in the virgin Mary without a father through the Holy Spirit. After Mary was betrothed to Joseph, but before they had come together, Mary "was found to be with child." Joseph had decided to divorce her quietly rather than shame her, when an angel appeared to him in a dream, saying,

"Joseph, son of David, do not fear to take Mary your wife, for that which is conceived in her is of the Holy Spirit; she will bear a son, and you shall call his name Jesus, for he will save his people from their sins." (Matthew 1: 20-21)

Signs and wonders accompanied Jesus' birth. The well-known version of this story is found in the second chapter of Luke:

"And it came to pass in those days, that there went out a decree from Caesar Augustus, that all the world should be taxed...And all went to be taxed, every one into his own city. And Joseph also went up from Galilee, out of the city of Nazareth into Judaea, unto the city of David, which is called Bethlehem; (because he was of the house and lineage of David;) to be taxed with Mary his espoused wife, being great with child. And so it was, that, while they were there, the days were accomplished that she should be delivered. And she brought forth her first-born son, and wrapped him in swaddling clothes, and laid him in a manger; because there was no room for them in the inn."

After Jesus' birth, an angel of the Lord appeared to tell shepherds, who were nearby watching their flocks, that a "Saviour" had been born.

"And suddenly there was a "multitude of the heavenly host praising God, and saying Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace, good will toward men."

In the Book of Matthew, wise men who are following the star of Bethlehem (the Magi), serve as a warning to Herod. He tells them to "bring me word again, that I may come and worship him." But they are warned by God not to return to Herod. An angel warns Joseph of the danger and the family flees to Egypt, where they live until Herod's death.

According to Luke, at the age of twelve Jesus demonstrated great understanding when his parents found him "in the temple, sitting in the midst of the doctors, both hearing them, and asking them questions." It is known that he was a member of a large family. He earned his living by his father's trade of carpentry. Plows and yokes made by him were still in existence in Justin Martyr's time, AD 120.("Dial. cum Tryph." § 88). It is also known that, during his ministry, he was a healer. He cured one sick of a fever, a leper, a paralytic, and an epileptic. Jesus attracted the attention of the authorities all through his ministry, but he was considered a serious political threat after he cleansed the temple.

"And Jesus went into the temple of God, and cast out all them that sold and bought in the temple, and overthrew the tables of the money-changers, and the seats of them that sold doves, and said unto them, It is written, My house shall be called the house of prayer; but ye have made it a den of theives." (Matthew 21: 12-13)

According to the Book of Matthew Jesus was betrayed by one of his disciples, Judas Iscariot, arrested, condemned before Pilate, humiliated and crucified in "a place called Golgotha," between two thieves.

Christians believe there will be a second coming of Christ, in which Jesus will descend from heaven to earth. This will be accompanied by the resurrection of the dead the last judgment and the establishment of the Kingdom of God on earth.

John the Baptist

There is a miraculous birth tradition associated with John the Baptist, who baptized Jesus in the River Jordan. John’s story is told in the first chapter of the Book of Luke. When Herod was king of Judea, there was a priest named Zacharias (see, Zechariah (priest), and his wife Elizabeth, who were both “well stricken in age” and had no children. An angel appeared to Zacharias in the temple and told him that he and Elizabeth would have a son who would be “great in the sight of the Lord” and that they should name him John.

The Protevangelium of James, written about AD 150, tells how after John’s birth, Herod was forewarned about a child who would grow to threaten his power. He sent soldiers to the temple to look for John, to kill him. When Zacharias wouldn’t tell them where the boy was, they killed him at the altar. Elizabeth took John and “went up into the hill-country. And she looked around (to see) where she could hide him, and there was no hiding-place.

"And Elizabeth groaned aloud and said: ‘O mountain of God, receive me, a mother, with my child’….And immediately the mountain was rent asunder and received her. And that mountain made a light to gleam for her; for an angel was with them and protected them.”

The boy grew up, probably in this same mountainous region, perhaps as a shepherd. His mother died, in some accounts, when he was only 7 years and 6 months old. Later, he took a prophetic role. There are many modern theories about this role. One opinion is that John the Baptist believed the time had come for the return of the Prophet Elijah. In his role as the Forerunner, or as Elisha, he was preparing Israel for Elijah’s coming through the baptism of repentance.

Herod Antipas arrested John the Baptist, probably for threatening Herod’s political authority, and also for criticizing his marriage to his brother’s wife, Herodias. He was later beheaded, a common type of execution meted out to enemies of the state. This is explained in the Biblical story of Herod’s stepdaughter, who obtained his promise that she could have any gift she desired. Through her mother’s influence, she requested the head of John the Baptist. However, the Jewish general and historian, Josephus, wrote that although John was a “good man and had exhorted the Jews to lead righteous lives, to practice justice towards their fellows and piety towards God, and so doing to join in baptism…When others too joined the crowds about him, because they were aroused to the highest degree by his sermons, Herod became alarmed. Eloquence that had so great an effect on mankind might lead to some form of sedition. For it looked as if they would be guided by John in everything that they did. Herod decided therefore that it would be much better to strike first and be rid of him before his work led to an uprising…”

Later, when the Nabataean ruler Aretas destroyed Herod’s army, the Jews said it was divine vengeance for his treatment of John (Jewish antiquities XVIII, 116-19; translation by Louis H. Feldman, Loeb Classical Library edition, as quoted by Gibson).

After John's death, his followers believed he would return. If John's followers believed he was Elijah, they might expect his return to take place through reincarnation, or "rebirth." However, the Haggadah and other writings created a new history for Elijah, which only begins after his death or "translation". (According to 2 Kings 2: 11, in the Books of Kings, the prophet Elijah did not die, but was carried to heaven in a chariot of fire, drawn by horses of fire.) This new history for Elijah "ends...with the close of the history of the human race." It is said that God will send Elijah before "the great and dreadful day," and that his work as redeemer will begin three days before the coming of the Messiah.

Biblical historical criticism

Biblical historical criticism has provided six interpretations of the virgin birth. These are: “Comparative analogical analysis," “naturalistic philosophical interpretations," analyses of the "patristic" writings of the church fathers, "historical and literary analysis," "supernaturalistic theological interpretations," and analysis of the Pseudepigraphal and Apocryphal traditions.

See also

• Reports of unusual religious childbirths
• Parthenogenesis
• Jesus myth hypothesis