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A wide range of effects of climate change are currently being felt in Puerto Rico. According to the US Environmental Protection Agency, it is more affected by climate change than any other country in the world.[1]
Geographic location of Puerto Rico
The island's energy consumption is mainly based on imported fossil fuels.[2]
Despite the relatively small size of the country, it contains several different ecosystems that are affected in different ways by a variety of effects of climate change.[3]
Apart from the environment, the consequences of climate change also have adverse effects on Puerto Ricos population. Such effects can be of economical nature, but also related to human health or even forcing people to migrate.
Puerto Rico's society is becoming increasingly aware of the stresses imposed by climate change.[5] This is also reflected in the country's laws and policies concerning climate change mitigation and adaptation aiming, for example, towards a shift to renewable energy sources.[6] There is also a number of local initiatives working towards mitigation and adaptation goals as well as international aid programs that support the reconstruction after extreme weather events and encourage disaster planning[7].
Listing all Latin American and Caribbean countries according to their CO₂ emissions, Puerto Rico is on place 19 with industrial emissions, energy consumption, and transportation as the main sources of the island's net greenhouse gas emissions.[6] In total there are 33 Latin American and Caribbean countries.[8] The country's gross CO₂ emissions rose by 80% between the years of 1990 and 2005.[6] After 2005, emissions went back by roughly 42% until 2018.[6] However, this decrease in emissions is partly induced by a decrease in Puerto Rico's population.[6] Between 2010 and 2020, the population dropped by almost 12% from about 3.8 to 3.3 million inhabitants due to migrational movements to the U.S. as a result of the country's vulnerability to natural disasters and economic insecurities.[2]
Puerto Rico’s energy consumption is nearly 70 times higher than its energy production.[2] Compared to the U.S. average, the per capita consumption is only about one-third as high.[2] 58% of the country’s total energy consumption is rooted in petroleum products.[2] With 28%, natural gas accounts for the second highest share while coal facilitates 12% of Puerto Rico’s energy use and only roughly 2% are coming from renewable energy sources.[2]
Per capita CO₂ emissions of Puerto Rico in 2021 by fossil fuel compared to the U.S. (in metric tons)
(Population of Puerto Rico (2021): 3,263,584[10]; population of the U.S. (2021): 331.893.745[11]
* Please note that the data from the U.S. Energy Information Administration is only provided in full millions of metric tons and that the calculated per capita data is therefore not an exact but only an approximate value. The indication with two decimals in this case does not provide exact values but has been chosen to provide the closest possible representation of the reality based on the available data.
There are no official accounts of Puerto Rico having reserves or own production of fossil fuels.[2] The island's energy consumption is mainly based on imported fossil fuels.[2]
To understand climate trends in the past, present and future, natural variability must be taken into account. Climate variability refers to the annual variations in climate conditions, such as temperature and precipitation, within their normal range[3]. Factors which contribute to natural variability in Puerto Rico are for example phenomena like the El Niño Southern Oscillation or periodic events, such as volcanic eruptions. These natural factors are summarized under the term "internal climate variability" and are always present in the climate system[3].
In contrast to that, anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases, changes in atmospheric concentrations (e.g. CO₂, methane) and land surface changes are a different influence on the climate system. In order to identify climate change signals, it is crucial to distinguis these human-induced changes from natural variability. Climate change signals can be observed as changes in the magnitude of variability as well as systematic trends over time. In summary, variability is a natural feature of the climate system and its understanding is fundamental for identifying signals of anthropogenic climate change[3].
The mean annual temperature in Puerto Rico has increased over the last 100 years, from about 23 °C in 1921 to 25 °C in 2021 [3]. The World Bank Climate Knowledge Portal publishes graphs which illustrate these changes in the mean temperature. Projections for future air temperature in Puerto Rico are consistent with global patterns [3]. Compared to other islands in the Caribbean, the country shows a stronger trend of warming air temperature. [4]
The central regions of Puerto Rico, which are at higher elevations, are experiencing faster warming than other parts of the island. In addition, urban areas like San Juan, are experiencing the so-called urban heat island effect (UHI) [4]. This means that they are warming faster than rural or vegetated regions. Studies in San Juan have shown that the UHI effect is permanent due to urban extension and leads to a temperature increase of over 4 °C compared to surrounding rural areas. This trend of greater urban warming is expected to continue, with San Juan reaching an average temperature of 27°C by 2050, an increase of 1.5°C relative to 1950 levels [4].
The number of days with maximum temperature is increasing in the country, while days with minimum temperature are decreasing [4]. During the early 20th century there were approximately 100 days per decade which reached temperatures of over 32.2°C [4]. In 2010, however, the same number of heat days were reached within one year [4].
Being a tropicalisland, precipitation rates are naturally very high, especially in the north and central regions, which receive between 3000 – 4000 mm of rainfall every year [13]. Within the country, rainfall varies from region to region due to topography and geography in relation to trade winds and oceanic circulation [13]. Climate change is predicted to exacerbate these regional differences. For example, in some areas such as Old San Juan, there is a long-term trend towards a decrease in precipitation [4]. This decline is expected to continue in future projections. In contrast, the southern regions of Puerto Rico, which have been drier in the past, show a positive trend in precipitation. The seasonal distribution of precipitation is also expected to become more pronounced, with wetter winters and drier summers [4]. Overall, future projections indicate a further decrease in precipitation [4][13].
Concerning intense rain events, heavy rainfall has increased by 20% on average in North America, with the largest increase in the wettest regions. Puerto Rico has seen a 37% increase in heavy precipitation [4]. There is only limited data available for future projections, which leads to conflicting forecasts for extreme precipitation in the country [4]. However, the overall projections for the Caribbean region suggest a higher incidence of extreme precipitation events despite a decrease in total rainfall. In other words, rain will be less frequent but more intense [4].
Potential impacts on water resources in rain-fed areas of the Caribbean include higher precipitation extremes, greater seasonal variability in water runoff, a higher likelihood of prolonged dry spells and an increased risk of droughts and floods [14]. In this context, prolonged dry periods and increased evaporation can lead to a decline in lake levels [14]. This is problematic as they are essential as a source of freshwater supply. As water demand increases, groundwater use is expected to increase [14]. This is especially true in dry months when surface sources decline. Prolonged dry periods could also lead to reduced soil moisture, resulting in an increased need for irrigation in agriculture [14].
Over the last century, the surface temperatures of the Caribbean Sea have warmed by 1.5 °C [4]. The warming of the sea surface is faster on the Caribbean coasts of Puerto Rico than on the Atlantic coasts [4]. In addition, temperatures below the water surface are rising faster than surface temperatures [4]. Researchers estimate that there will be an increase of more than 1 °C within 50 years. This would mean that temperatures would exceed the threshold for coral bleaching in about one third of the year [4]. In addition, the threshold for the formation of deep convection storms will be exceeded throughout the year [4].
The rate of sea level rise (SLR) in Puerto Rico has been measured at 1.7 mm yr−1 based on historical records from tidal gauges since 1900, which is consistent with global trends [4]. However, recent satellite data from 1992 onwards shows that this rate has almost doubled to 3.2 mm yr−1[4]. Projections for the future SLR in Puerto Rico are similar to global estimates, with the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) recommending updated bounds of 0.3 m to 2.5 m for end-of-century projections [4]. The Caribbean region, including Puerto Rico, is particularly vulnerable to coastal flooding due to SLR [4].
As more carbon dioxide (CO₂) is released into the atmosphere, the ocean absorbs more CO₂, leading to a decrease in pH and carbonate saturation of the ocean [4]. This process is called ocean acidification and it negatively impacts marine life and geological processes through reducing calcification rates and mineral precipitation [4]. Puerto Rico experiences similar trends as the rest of the world, with decreasing average pH and carbonate saturation state [4]. The rate of decline for aragonite saturation states in Puerto Rico is currently at 3% per decade and is expected to continue with ongoing emissions [4].
Since 1995, the North Atlantic area has experienced an increase in hurricane activity [4]. However, this increase cannot be fully explained by human-induced climate change, but may also be influenced by natural variations [4]. In general, it is difficult to predict future hurricane activity, especially on a regional scale, due to uncertainties in modelling parameters. However, many studies suggest that hurricanes worldwide will become less frequent but more intense, with higher wind speeds and heavier rainfall, resulting in greater destructive power [4].
In Puerto Rico, the hurricanes Irma and Maria in 2017 were an example of these predicted climate change impacts that had devastating impacts in the Caribbean[13]. One consequence of this is damage to the coral reefs of the country's coasts which dissipate wave energy [4]. The lack of protection from the reefs, leads to an increased risk of damages caused by winter swells, resulting in coastal erosion and sediment displacement [4]. The southern part of the island is particularly vulnerable to Atlantic hurricanes. In the future, rising sea surface temperatures are likely to lead to more intense rainfall, winds and storm surges [4].
Despite the relatively small size of the country there are several different ecosystems in Puerto Rico: coastal and marine ecosystems, dry forests and rainforests, the Puerto Rican karst, and mountainous areas.[3]
Climate change is expected to have synergistic effects on ecosystems and species in Puerto Rico [6]. This means that systems that are already under stress will be exposed to additional stressors, exceeding their adaptive capacity [6]. This may result in loss of habitat, adverse changes in structure and function, or reduced benefits to society. While certain ecosystems and species may be able to adapt better to the changing environment, others may have more difficulty coping with the new conditions [6].
Today, about 40% of Puerto Rico's land area is covered by forests, consisting mainly of young mixed forests [15]. These forests provide an important habitat for numerous plant and animal species. They are also an important source of water supply for municipalities, agriculture, and industry, which is vital for nearly 4 million people[15]. At the same time, they function as recreational areas. Using the changes in Puerto Rico's forests, models can be derived for understanding similar changes in other tropical islands as a result of human expansion[15]. With the introduction of economically important crops and deforestation for pasture and charcoal production, the island's forests have changed dramatically over the past two centuries. One of the main factors in the disappearance of forests and old agricultural lands is economic development and increasing urbanization[15]. The diversity of Puerto Rican forests in terms of location and type is so great that the number of different forest types has yet to be fully documented[15].
Climate change is having a strong impact on forests through higher air temperatures, changes in precipitation, more intense wind and water events, and sea level rise. All of these factors are altering species composition and forest structure due to changes in habitat[6].
The Puerto Rican karst topography is a unique terrain formed by the dissolution of soluble rocks beneath the surface or with the help of groundwater. Karst topography is often linked with carbonate rocks, including limestone and dolomite[15][6]. In Puerto Rico, limestone terrain covers around 244,285 hectares or 28% of the island's area, with 218,692 hectares located in the North, 21,022 hectares in the South, and 4,571 hectares scattered throughout the remaining parts of the island, as reported by Lugo et al. in 2000[6][15]. Karst landscapes are very vulnerable to climate change and human pressures, e.g. through tourism and agriculture[16]. Human-environment interactions can have a critical effect on the components of the karst landscapes such as caves and their biodiversity [16]. Puerto Rico’s karst areas have been regarded as one of the world’s most endangered karst areas. At the same time, it is the least fragmented habitat in Puerto Rico[16]. Nowadays, there are efforts to promote ecotourism in the region to combine the economic benefits of tourism with environmental protection [16].
Puerto Rico has a variety of freshwater and marine wetland ecosystems: From coastal seagrass and mangrove ecosystems to numerous freshwater wetlands and high elevation cloud forests[15]. These wetlands are highly productive and have a variety of rare plant and animal species. For downstream settlements and communities, they play an important role in water supply[15]. Water runoff from the mountains to the coast contributes to the formation of vital ecosystems in rivers, coastal waters and estuaries that serve as breeding and nursery habitats for a variety of fish, crustaceans and other organisms[15].
In Puerto Rico, and in the Caribbean in general, palustrine and estuarine ecosystems are highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to the relationship between hydrology and wetland structure and function[6]. Most wetlands in Puerto Rico are located along the coast, with palustrine wetlands largely adjacent to estuaries or nearshore ecosystems[6]. This leads to interactions between the different systems[6].
During Puerto Rico's agricultural expansion, wetland ecosystems were severely impacted and destroyed by dredging, filling, draining, eutrophication, and the use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture[15]. The size of the original area of freshwater wetlands in Puerto Rico in times of Colombus is, however, unknown[15].
Mosquito bay - Bioluminescent bay in Vieques Puerto Rico
In Puerto Rico, there are bioluminescent bays and lagoon ecosystems[6]. In these rare ecosystems, bioluminescent algae species gather and emit light. Because of the small, narrow embayments to the sea, water lingers longer in the bays and large populations of algae develop. Factors such as water circulation patterns and wind can also contribute to maintaining high species diversity in these ecosystems[6].
Climate change is stressing bioluminescent systems, particularly through heavy precipitation, storms, and hurricanes. These factors can lead to an increase in land runoff, which can then lead to higher levels of sediment and nutrients in the water[17]. This means that water quality can change due to changes in sedimentation, productivity, and the frequency and magnitude of salinity changes. In addition, warmer temperatures due to climate change affect phytoplankton organisms[17].
The two main types of coasts in Puerto Rico are beaches (30%) and vegetated coasts, which are mainly covered by mangroves (28%), although other plants also occur in the dune areas[6]. Rocky coasts are composed of different types of rocks and represent 10% of the island's coasts. The transition from agriculture to industry during the 20th century greatly altered the coastline, including the construction of port facilities and breakwaters[6]. Urbanization also contributes to the hardening of the coastline, affecting sediment transport and erosion. Thus, the spread of paved shorelines poses a significant threat by reducing natural coastal protection and promoting erosion[6]. These effects are likely to be exacerbated by climate change, for example, with the increasing intensity and frequency of storms and sea level rise[6].
Puerto Rico's marine ecosystems consist of coral and seagrass habitats, bays, and small islands that support a range of valuable resources including fisheries and marine mammals[6].
One effect of climate change is on the seagrass cover, which has been researched at the Caja de Muertos Island, which had a dense sea grass cover in the 1950s.[6] More intense and frequent storms, as a result form climate change, are predicted to impact this habitat negatively, as it was shown that after Hurricane Maria in 2017 the seagrass cover declined significantly.[6] The sea grass beds have the ability to recover from these storms and some climate change effects such as the increased nutrient supply after rainfall events and higher CO₂ concentrations actually even benefit the habitat. Nevertheless, the more frequent and intense storms are predicted to outbalance these positive effects and lead to a long term damage of the seagrass cover.[6]
Coral reefs help to establish and protect productive seagrass beds and mangrove forests and provide habitat, refuge, and resources for millions of species, including many that are commercially important. In addition, the reefs serve to protect the coastline and provide space for research, recreation and education[6].
Climate change causes stress on coral habitats through various factors such as rising sea temperatures, sudden reductions of salinity, increased chemical toxins or solar irradiance[6]. A common phenomenon that happens is coral bleaching, which occurs out of a change in the habitats conditions, which brings the symbiosis between corals and populations of photosynthetic dinoflagellate (zooxanthellae) out of balance[6]. Through stressors caused by climate change, the zooxanthellae loose their photosynthetic pigments or are expelled from the coral tissues. As a result, the corals are deprived from their energy source, which leads to starvation and death[6].
The Puerto Rico Coral Reef Monitoring Program (PRCRMP) is monitoring 42 coral reef stations around the country to document the status of the habitats[6]. Mass coral bleeching events were reported after temperature extremes of El-niño events in 1987, 1998 and 2005[6]. These mass bleaching events cause significant declines in coral reef fish abundance and biodiversity[6].
Rising temperatures may have a detrimental effect on agricultural productivity in Puerto Rico, particularly in relation to livestock farming.[6] This is due to the fact that hot temperatures can be harmful to the health of cows, causing them to eat less, grow at a slower pace, and produce less milk.[6] Additionally, reduced water availability during the dry season may cause stress to crops, while warmer temperatures could lead to reduced yields of certain crops, including plantain, banana, and coffee.[6]
A recent study utilized a modeling approach to assess the impact of climate change on coffee production in Puerto Rico. The study found that, under future climate scenarios, the area suitable for coffee production in Puerto Rico is expected to decrease significantly, which could result in negative impacts on both the quantity and quality of coffee produced.[2] Specifically, by 2050, the area suitable for coffee production could decline by up to 50%, and by 2100, it could decline by up to 100%.[2]
According to the study, warming and drying trends are projected to accelerate after 2040, which may lead to the loss of up to 84% of highly suitable growing conditions in top producing municipalities by 2070. Under the A2 scenario, Puerto Rico may only retain 24 km2 of highly suitable conditions by 2071–2099. Such projected loss of suitable growing conditions could have negative economic impacts on the coffee industry, which has long been culturally and economically significant in Puerto Rico.[2] Although value-added markets present opportunities to revitalize the industry, regional climate change trends may pose a threat to the production of high-quality coffee.[2]
Climate change presents a multifaceted and complex economic impact on Puerto Rico, as it not only hinders real GNP growth but also threatens the tourism industry, which is a crucial economic driver.[6] The island's natural features, such as coral reefs, beaches, mangroves, and rainforests, are particularly vulnerable to climate change.[6] Visitors who engage with these features spend more than $1.9 billion annually in Puerto Rico.[6] Climate-related risks such as water scarcity, coastal erosion, marine biodiversity loss, warmer summers, extreme weather events, and an increase in disease outbreaks can all have substantial impacts on tourism and the economy as a whole.[6]
Climate change also poses significant threats to agriculture in Puerto Rico. Droughts, floods, and saltwater intrusion are among the impacts that affect agricultural lands. Coastal agricultural lands are particularly vulnerable to sea level rise, which can exacerbate water access issues and impact prime agricultural lands.[6] New pests and invasive species can also affect livestock, wildlife, and plants. Moreover, many farmers in Puerto Rico lack the necessary capacity, expertise, information, or equipment to adapt to climate change, leaving them vulnerable to its impacts.[6]
Additionally, studies provide further details on specific crops and livestock affected by climate change in Puerto Rico. Farinaceous crops, including cassava and yams, have been impacted by droughts, leading to reduced yields and quality.[6] Fruits, such as mangoes and avocados, have been affected by changes in rainfall patterns, which can impact their flowering and fruiting.[6] Farmers have also had to deal with increased costs associated with importing feed to compensate for the reduced availability of hay due to droughts.[6]
Since 1950, the frequency of warm nights in Puerto Rico has increased by about 50 percent, and the overnight low in San Juan is above 77 degrees Fahrenheit (25 degrees Celsius) about 10 percent of the time.[6] Furthermore, Puerto Rico's climate is suitable for mosquito species that carry diseases like malaria, yellow fever, and dengue fever, which are likely to increase with higher air temperatures that accelerate the mosquito life cycle and virus replication. [6]
Puerto Rico's warm marine environment already supports the occurrence of certain types of water-related illnesses, such as vibriosis and ciguatera poisoning, which can increase with higher ocean temperatures that promote the growth of these bacteria and algae.[6] Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns can also increase the risk of infectious and vector-borne diseases like dengue fever, chikungunya, and Zika virus, which are transmitted by mosquitoes that are sensitive to environmental changes.[6]
Extreme weather events like hurricanes and floods can have direct impacts on human health, causing injuries, displacement, and stress, as well as damaging healthcare infrastructure and disrupting access to healthcare services, which can worsen existing health disparities.[6] It is crucial to improve the resilience of healthcare facilities by installing backup generators, improving building codes, and developing emergency response plans, as well as to reduce carbon footprints by implementing energy-efficient practices and using renewable energy sources.[6]
Climate change can also indirectly affect human health by deteriorating air and water quality.[6] For example, increases in temperature can worsen air pollution and respiratory illnesses, while changes in rainfall patterns can contaminate water sources.[6] Promoting alternative transportation methods such as biking or walking can help reduce emissions from vehicles and improve air quality, reducing the risk of respiratory illnesses.[6]
Tropical storms and hurricanes have become more intense in Puerto Rico over the past 20 years. [6]Although scientists are not certain whether this intensification reflects a long-term trend, hurricane wind speeds and rainfall rates are expected to increase as the climate continues to warm.[6] This poses a significant threat to Puerto Rico's housing infrastructure, as cities, roads, and ports are vulnerable to the impacts of wind and water during storms.[6]Higher wind speeds and damages can make insurance for wind damage more expensive or difficult to obtain, and coastal homes and infrastructure are likely to flood more often as sea levels rise.[6] Furthermore, inland flooding is likely to increase as heavy rainstorms become more frequent and intense, resulting in significant property damage and displacement for affected communities.[6]
The impacts of climate change on Puerto Rico are also expected to have significant implications for migration. As extreme weather events become more frequent and intense, they are likely to displace populations and create new waves of climate refugees.[18] Coastal communities, in particular, are at risk of displacement due to sea level rise and increased storm surges.[18] Moreover, the impact of climate change on agriculture and food security could also lead to displacement as people are forced to migrate in search of better opportunities.[18]
Puerto Rico has a long and culturally rich history, spanning more than 5,000 years of social processes[4]. Climate change is considered a major threat that severely affects the physical evidence of this history[4]. This is due to rising air temperatures, which are associated with an increased rate of degradation of artefacts and decay of organic material. Another reason is the change in precipitation trends, which may make some regions drier or wetter and thus change the conditions for the materials by, for example, making them more prone to fire[4].
In order to preserve Puerto Rico's cultural heritage, its vulnerability must be assessed so that management plans can be created that include strategies to increase resilience and adaptability[4]. Early identification of sites at risk is crucial for the creation of historical records and collections. A useful tool for the protection of cultural heritage sites is community participation, i.e. the use of citizen science to monitor areas and provide feedback on their significance[4].
A study done by Mendez-Tejeda et al. (2021) has shown that the public awareness of climate change amongst citizens in Puerto Rico has increased after the devastating effects of Hurricane Maria in 2017[5]. According to this study, non-profit institutions and the scientific community are more trusted by Puerto Ricans compared to state authorities[5]. The study also revealed that 85% of citizens believe that public policies on global climate change should be directed by the state, including federal, state, and municipal governments[5].
Puerto Rico recognizes the shared responsibility to work towards the achievement of emission reduction goals and engages in the development of mitigation plans and regulations on national and multinational levels.[6] The publication of the first Puerto Rico State of the Climate report in 2013 has spured engagement in elaborating climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies concerning environmental as well as social and economic issues.[6]
The NGO Vida Marina in Puerto Rico found that dune restoration can be supported by making use of the concept of biomimicry.[6] The dune formation is thereby accelerated by putting small pieces of wood into the sand that effectively immitate the sand collecting property of coastal vegetation.[6][19]
Elkhorn coralDifferent coral population enhancement techniques as well as restocking measures are being applied to stabilize populations that have been disturbed by, for example, storms.[6] The plantation of elkhorn corals can, moreover, have a buffer effect taking away wave energy and helping to build up ramparts that play an important role with respect to the sea level rise threatening Puerto rico as they have a stabilizing function for cays.[6]
Guánica State Forest, Puerto RicoSea level changes and coastal erosion as well as the presence of invasive species especially in the southern karst also favour considerations about expanding protected areas such as the Guánica Commonwealth Forest.[6]
The expansion of existing and creation of new marine protected areas as well as putting in place education programs improving the management of human activities are expected to diminish coral deseases and also favour other marine species and habitats.[6] Coral survival should also be supported by fostering species with high genetic variability. These efforts should also be accompanied by restricting land-based sources of pollution.[6]
Vulnerability assessments that account for climate change induced habitat changes can help to determine areas that would be suitable for the relocation of especially vulnerable species.[6]
The improvement of water quality by decreasing the content of nutrients through improvement of drain traps for storm water or the installation of control systems for erosion can contribute significantly to the protection of coastal and marine habitats.[6]
Article VI, § 19 of the constitution of Puerto Rico includes the claim of public policy to use and manage natural resources as effectively as possible and, thus, contribute to the Puerto Rican welfare.[6] The validity of this mandate persists across any law or regulation.[6] It has not been interpreted specifically with respect to climate change yet but initiatives and policies aimed at sustainable development including the mitigation of climate change and adaptation to its consequences are thriving.[6]
Act No. 82-2010, as amended “Public Policy on Energy Diversification by Means of Sustainable and Alternative Renewable Energy in Puerto Rico Act”
This law demands the Executive Branch to set the frame for future generations to benefit from a healthy environment, economic development and stable energy prices considering that the current energy policy is heavily relying on fossil fuels and imports from other countries.[6] In this context, the law also sets up so called Renewable Portfolio Standards and mandatory goals for the generation of renewable energy with time horizons reachichng from short to rather long-term targets.[6]
Act No. 17-2019, “Puerto Rico Energy Public Policy Act”
This act is an amendment to the above Act No. 82-2010 that extends the Renewable Portfolio Standards by, among other aspects, setting the goal of generating energy from 100% renewable sources until 2050 (Objective No. 7) and limiting the use of coal as a source of energy to the year 2028 (Objective No. 3).[6]
Act No. 33-2019, “Mitigation, Adaptation and Resilience to Climate Change of Puerto Rico Act”
This act puts in place the first public policy of Puerto Rico for climate change.[6] This includes the establishment of an account for greenhouse gas emissions and it requests the acceptance of a Climate Change Mitigation, Adaptation and Resilience Plan organized by a division into different sectors and defines reduction targets.[6] Moreover, a Committee of Experts and Advisers on Climate Change and a Joint Commission on Mitigation, Adaptation and Resilience to Climate Change of the Legislative Assembly were set up and the presentation of first results of the above mandates was scheduled for April 2021.[6]
The CCH is located in Puerto Rico and part of a network of ten regional hubs collaborating with the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to provide local people in the agricultural sector with scientific knowledge and technical support to react to stresses like droughts and floods imposed by climate change in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.[20] The CCH facilitates collaboration with local and regional agencies, universities and the public in order to drive forward climate change adaptation processes.[20] With these efforts, the CCH is make a significant contribution to sustaining the availability of food, water, and other vital resources in the carribean region that is strongly affected by climate change.[20]
Luquillo Long-Term Ecological Research program (LUQ)
The LUQ unites research groups that aim to achieve a better understanding of climate change in a tropical environment and increase the ability to protect it respectively with their investigations.[21] Data collected by LUQ data is made accesible to the general public and collaboration with other scientists, students and volunteers is an essential part of LUQ's work.[21] The resulting findings are, for example, communicated using print publications or workshops and also reach policy makers among other groups of society.[21] Community involvement at LUQ is also fostered by educational programs including for example internships or interactive computer modules that allow students to get involved with the research of LUQ.[21] The initiative is mainly funded by the National Science Foundation, the University of Puerto Rico’s Department of Environmental Sciences, and the USDA Forest Service’s International Institute of Tropical Forestry.[21]
As a result of the damages and suffering in Puerto Rico caused by natural disasters like Hurricane Irma, Hurricane Maria and earthquakes, federal aid programs have been set up to support the government of Puerto Rico with the respective recovery and reconstruction[7]. These financial supports are estimated to include but not limited to:
Seal of the Federal Emergency Management Agency$45 billion in Federal Emergency Management Agency (“FEMA”) Public Assistance program grants,
$19.9 billion in Department of Housing and Urban Development (“HUD”) Community Development Block Grant-Disaster Recovery (“CDBG-DR”) grants.[7]
The FEMA Public Assistance program has been granted by the President of the United States and provides funding for states, territories, or tribes as "recipients" as well as local governments as "subrecipients" and is mainly directed towards the reconstruction of damaged infrastructure.[7]
Apart from reconstruction, the Hazard Mitigation Grant Program aims to support disaster planning and prevent future disasters from harming people and their property.[7] While suggesting long-term and cost-efficient mitigation plans, the main idea of this program is to make sure that the time of reconstruction after a disaster is simultaneously used to implement respective mitigative measures to reduce the degree of repetitive damage in case of future extreme events.[7]
^ abcdMendez-Tejeda, Rafael; Santos-Corrada; Mena-Candelaria (2021). "Perceptions of Climate Change in Puerto Rico before and after Hurricane Maria". American Journal of Climate Change. 10 (2): 153–166.
^ abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahaiajakalamanaoapaqarasatauavawaxayazbabbbcbdbebfbgbhbibjbkblbmbnbobpbqbrbsbtbubvbwbxbybzPuerto Rico Climate Change Council (PRCCC). 2022. Puerto Rico’s State of the
Climate 2014-2021: Assessing Puerto Rico’s Social-Ecological Vulnerabilities in a
Changing Climate. Puerto Rico Coastal Zone Management Program, Department of
Natural and Environmental Resources, NOAA Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource
Management. San Juan, PR. Cite error: The named reference ":0" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
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