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Ascophyllum nodosum is a large, common cold water seaweed or brown alga (Phaeophyceae) in the family Fucaceae. A. nodosum is also known in localities as feamainn bhuí, rockweed, Norwegian kelp, knotted kelp, knotted wrack or egg wrack. It is a seaweed that dominates the intertidal zone[1] [2] and grows only in the northern Atlantic Ocean, along the north-western coast of Europe (from the White Sea to Portugal) including east Greenland[3] and the north-eastern coast of North America, its range further south of these latitudes being limited by warmer ocean waters.[4] Ascophyllum nodosum has been used numerous times in scientific research and has even been found to benefit humans through consumption. [5]

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Scientific Name History

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A. nodosum is the only species in the genus Ascophyllum. "The original name (basionym) was Fucus nodosus Linnaeus 1753. The species was transferred to the genus Ascophyllum (as Ascophylla) by Stackhouse (Papenfuss 1950), under the name Ascophyllum laevigata(Guiry and Guiry 2020). The combination Ascophyllum nodosum was made by Le Jolis (1863)."[6].

Description

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Ascophyllum nodosum has long tough and leathery fronds,[7] irregularly dichotomously branched [8]fronds with large, egg-shaped air bladders set in series at regular intervals along the fronds and not stalked. The air bladders create a way for fronds broken by wave exposure or other causes to be dispersed and regrow in other areas.[9] While the fronds can reach up to 2m, the length depends on wave exposure: the length increases with water velocity until a certain point, then decreases as waves become more intense. [9] The fronds can reach 2m in length and are attached by a holdfast to rocks and boulders. In rare cases, the fronds can reach 6m long[6]. The fronds are olive-green,[10] olive-brown in color and somewhat compressed, but without a midrib.[11]

Reproduction

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Each individual plant is dioecious: either male or female.[12] The gametes from one plant are produced in the spring[12] in conceptacles embedded in yellowish receptacles on short branches.[13][14] A year after the plant is fertilized and forms a zygote, the first frond grows, and at the beginning of year 2, an air bladder forms, which creates a way to age the plants.[15]

Varieties and forms

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Several different varieties and forms of this species have been described, including the two below.

  • Free-floating forms of this species are found in, for example, A. n. mackaii Cotton, which is found at very sheltered locations, such as at the heads of sea lochs in Scotland and Ireland.[17][1]

Ecology

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Ascophyllum nodosum is found mostly on sheltered sites on shores in the midlittoral, or intertidal, zone, where it can become the dominant species in the littoral zone.[2][18]

The species is found in a range of coastal habitats from sheltered estuaries to moderately exposed coasts, and often it dominates the intertidal zone (although subtidal populations are known to exist in very clear waters). However, it is rarely found on exposed shores, and if it is found, the fronds are usually small and badly scratched. This seaweed grows quite slowly, 0.5% per day, carrying capacity is about 40 kg wet weight per square meter, and it may live for 10–15 years. It may typically overlap in distribution with Fucus vesiculosus and Fucus serratus. Its distribution is also limited by salinity, wave exposure, temperature, desiccation, and general stress.[19][20][21] It may take approximately five years before becoming fertile.

Ascophyllum nodosum is an autotroph, meaning that it makes its own food. Like other plants and algae, knotted wrack undergoes photosynthesis. The air bladders on A. nodosum serve as a flotation device, which allows sunlight to reach the plant better, aiding photosynthesis. [6]

Phlorotannins in A. nodosum act as chemical defenses against the marine herbivorous snail, Littorina littorea.[22]

Excess sperm can be released during the reproductive process of Ascophyllum nodosum, which can then act as a food source for plankton consumers. The coverage created by mats of A. nodosum can serve as protection for several marine species, including barnacles (Semibalanus balanoides) , periwinkles (genus littorina), and marine isopods.[9]

Polysiphonia lanosa (L.) T.A. Christensen is a small red alga, commonly found growing in dense tufts on Ascophyllum whose rhizoids penetrate the host.[23] It is considered by some as parasitic; however, as it only receives structural support from knotted wrack (not parasitically), it acts as an epiphyte.

Distribution

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This species has been recorded in Europe from Ireland, the White Sea,[24] the Faroe Islands,[25] Norway,[26] Britain and Isle of Man,[27] Netherlands,[28] and North America from the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, Baffin Island, Hudson Strait, Labrador, and Newfoundland.[29][30] The southern boundary of A. nodosum ends around Long Island, NY, on account of higher water temperatures when traveling farther south.[6] It has been recorded as an accidental introduction near San Francisco, California, and eradicated as a potential invasive species.[31]

Uses

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The consumption of Ascophyllum nodosum has been proven to have dental benefits in humans,[32][33] dogs[34][35] and cats.[35] In addition to dental benefits, A. nodosum can reduce inflammation and speed up healing, especially after a serious injury.[6] Brown algae contains fucoidans, which are "sulfated, fucose-rich polymers". Fucoidans block selectins, which are receptors on white blood cells that allow those cells to enter a tissue, causing inflammation. Since the fucoidans block inflammation, A. nodosum can be considered an anti-inflammatory. [5]

In "The effects of Ascophyllum nodosum, Camellia sinensis-leaf extract, and their joint interventions on glycolipid and energy metabolism in obese mice", it was discovered that ascophyllum nodosum extracts can be used to control body weight in obese mice.[36] There is potential for these extracts to be efficient in humans, but most studies focus on the effects in small rodents, so more testing needs to be done.[37]

Ascophyllum nodosum is harvested for use in alginates, fertilisers, and the manufacture of seaweed meal for animal and human consumption. Due to the high level of vitamins and minerals that bioaccumulate in A. nodosum, it has been used in Greenland as a dietary supplement.[6] It was also been used for certain herbal teas, particularly kelp teas.[6][38] It has long been used as an organic and mainstream fertilizer for many varieties of crops due to its combination of both macronutrients, (N, P, and K) and micronutrients (Ca, Mg, S, Mn, Cu, Fe, Zn, etc.). It also contains cytokinins, auxin-like gibberellins, betaines, mannitol, organic acids, polysaccharides, amino acids, and proteins which are all very beneficial and widely used in agriculture.[39] Ireland, Scotland and Norway have provided the world's principal alginate supply.[40][41]

Ascophyllum nodosum is frequently used as packaging material for baitworm and lobster shipments from New England to various domestic and international locations.[42] Ascophyllum itself has occasionally been introduced to California, and several species frequently found in baitworm shipments, including Carcinus maenas and Littorina saxatilis, may have been introduced to the San Francisco Bay region this way.[42]

Toxicological uses

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Because the age of the different parts of A. nodosum can be identified by its shoots, it has also been used to monitor concentrations of heavy metals in seawater. A concentration factor for zinc has been reported to be of the order 104.[43][44] It has been used in this way for over fifty years, and studies have shown that A. nodosum absorbs cobalt, cadmium, lead, and indium metal ions out of the water. It has also been used to track environmental radioactivity. [6]



References

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  1. ^ a b O. Morton (2003). "The marine macroalgae of County Donegal, Ireland". Bulletin of the Irish Biogeographical Society. 27: 3–164.
  2. ^ a b O. Morton (1994). Marine Algae of Northern Ireland. Ulster Museum, Belfast. ISBN 978-0-900761-28-7.
  3. ^ M. D. Guiry & Wendy Guiry (2006-11-23). "Ascophyllum nodosum (Linnaeus) Le Jolis". AlgaeBase.
  4. ^ W. R. Taylor (1962). Marine Algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-04904-2.
  5. ^ a b Fitton, Janet Helen (2011). "Therapies from fucoidan; multifunctional marine polymers". Marine Drugs. 9 (10): 1731–1760. doi:10.3390/md9101731. ISSN 1660-3397. PMC 3210604. PMID 22072995.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h Pereira, L., Morrison, L., Shukla, P. S., & Critchley, A. T. (2020). A concise review of the brown macroalga Ascophyllum nodosum (Linnaeus) Le Jolis. Journal of Applied Phycology, 32(6), 3561-3584. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10811-020-02246-6
  7. ^ Bunker, F.StP., Maggs, C.A., Brodie, J.A. and Bunker, J.A. 2017. Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland. Second Edition. Wild Nature Press, Plymouth, UK. ISBN 978-0-9955673-3-7
  8. ^ Newton, L. 1931. A Handbook of the British Seaweeds. British Museum, London
  9. ^ a b c Arbuckle, J., Beal, B., Brawley, S., Domizi, S., Mercer, L., Preston, D., Seaver, G., Sferra, N., Thayer, P., Ugarte, R., Vonderweidt, C. 2014. Fishery management plan for rockweed (Ascophyllum nodosum). Maine Department of Marine Resources. https://www.maine.gov/dmr/sites/maine.gov.dmr/files/docs/DMRRockweedFMPJan2014.pdf
  10. ^ Harvey, W.H. 1841. A Manual of the British Algae: London, John van Voorst, London
  11. ^ S. Hiscock (1979). "A field key to the British brown seaweeds (Heterokontophyta)". Field Studies. 5: 1–44.
  12. ^ a b Bunker, F.StP., Maggs, C.A., Brodie, J.A. and Bunker, J.A. 2017. Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland. Second Edition. Wild Nature Press, Plymouth, UK. ISBN 978-0-9955673-3-7
  13. ^ W. R. Taylor (1962). Marine Algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-04904-2.
  14. ^ H. Stegenga; J. J. Bolton; R. J. Anderson (1997). Seaweeds of the South African West Coast. Bolus Herbarium Humber 18, University of Cape Town. ISBN 978-0-7992-1793-3.
  15. ^ Arbuckle, J.; Beal, B.; Brawley, S.; Domizi, S.; Mercer, L.; Preston, D.; Seaver, G.; Sferra, N.; Thayer, P.; Ugarte, R.; Vonderweidt, C. (January 2014). "Fishery Management Plan for Rockweed (Ascophyllum nodosum)" (PDF). Maine Department of Marine Resources. Retrieved October 6, 2023.
  16. ^ M. J. Lynn (1949). "A rare alga from Larne Lough". Irish Naturalists' Journal. 9: 301–304.
  17. ^ D. C. Gibb (1957). "The free-living forms of Ascophyllum nodosum (L.) Le Jol". Journal of Ecology. 45 (1): 49–83. doi:10.2307/2257076. JSTOR 2257076.
  18. ^ J. R. Lewis (1964). The Ecology of Rocky Shores. English Universities Press, London.
  19. ^ Schonbeck, M. W.; Norton, T. A. (1980). "Factors controlling the lower limits of fucoid algae on the shore". J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 43 (2): 131–150. doi:10.1016/0022-0981(80)90021-0.
  20. ^ Seip, K. L. (1980). "A mathematical model of competition and colonization in a community of marine benthic algae". Ecological Modelling. 10 (2): 77–104. doi:10.1016/0304-3800(80)90065-4.
  21. ^ Seip K. L. "Mathematical models of rocky shore ecosystems". In: Jørgensen S. E. & Mitch W J. (Eds.) Application of ecological modelling in environmental management, Part B, Chap 13, pp 341-433.
  22. ^ Geiselman, J. A.; McConnell, O. J. (1981). "Polyphenols in brown algae Fucus vesiculosus and Ascophyllum nodosum: Chemical defenses against the marine herbivorous snail, Littorina littorea". Journal of Chemical Ecology. 7 (6): 1115–1133. doi:10.1007/BF00987632. PMID 24420835. S2CID 21550668.
  23. ^ C. A. Maggs (1993). Seaweeds of the British Isles. Vol. I: Rhodophyta. Part 3A. Natural History Museum, London. ISBN 978-0-11-310045-3.
  24. ^ "Продукция Бурых Водорослей Ascophyllum Nodosum И Fucus Vesiculosus В Белом Море". Биология Моря. 35 (5). 2009.
  25. ^ F. Børgesen (1903). Botany of the Færöes Part II, pp. 339–532. Det nordiske Forlag Ernst Bojesen, Copenhagen.
  26. ^ F. E. Round (1981). The Ecology of Algae. Cambridge University Press Cambridge. ISBN 978-0-521-22583-0.
  27. ^ F. G. Hardy & M. D. Guiry (2006). A Check-list and Atlas of the Seaweeds of Britain and Ireland. British Phycological Society, London. ISBN 978-3-906166-35-3.
  28. ^ H. Stegenga; I. Mol; W. F. Prud'homme van Reine; G. M. Lokhorst (1997). "Checklist of the marine algae of the Netherlands". Gorteria. supplement. 4: 3–57.
  29. ^ M. D. Guiry & Wendy Guiry (2006-11-23). "Ascophyllum nodosum (Linnaeus) Le Jolis". AlgaeBase.
  30. ^ W. R. Taylor (1962). Marine Algae of the Northeastern Coast of North America. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-04904-2.
  31. ^ A. W. Miller; A. L. Chang; N. Cosentino-Manning; G. M. Ruiz (2004). "A new record and eradication of the north Atlantic alga Ascophyllum nodosum (Phaeophyceae) from San Francisco Bay, California, USA". Journal of Phycology. 40 (6): 1028–1031. doi:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2004.04081.x. S2CID 85943266.
  32. ^ van Dijken, Jan W. V.; Koistinen, S.; Ramberg, Per (2015). "A randomized controlled clinical study of the effect of daily intake of Ascophyllum nodosum alga on calculus, plaque, and gingivitis". Clinical Oral Investigations. 19 (6): 1507–1518. doi:10.1007/s00784-014-1383-2. ISSN 1436-3771. PMID 25511384. S2CID 254086069.
  33. ^ Wikner, S.; Timander, Christina; Bergström, J. (2007). "The systemic effect of a food additive on dental plaque and calculus". www.semanticscholar.org. S2CID 34112885. Retrieved 2023-03-28.
  34. ^ Gawor, Jerzy; Jank, Michał; Jodkowska, Katarzyna; Klim, Emilia; Svensson, Ulla K. (2018-07-27). "Effects of Edible Treats Containing Ascophyllum nodosum on the Oral Health of Dogs: A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Single-Center Study". Frontiers in Veterinary Science. 5: 168. doi:10.3389/fvets.2018.00168. ISSN 2297-1769. PMC 6080642. PMID 30109236.
  35. ^ a b Gawor, J; Jodkowska, K; Jank, M (2013). "Effects of an Ascophyllum Nodosum Formulation on Oral Health Index in Dogs and Cats". Weterynaria W Praktyce (Veterinary Medicine in Practice) Magazine (10): 74.
  36. ^ Xu, Yuhan; Jia, Xiuzhen; Zhang, Wei; Xie, Qiaoling; Zhu, Meizhen; Zhao, Zifu; Hao, Jingyu; Li, Haoqiu; Du, Jinrui; Liu, Yan; Feng, Haotian; He, Jian; Li, Hongwei (2023). "The effects of Ascophyllum nodosum, Camellia sinensis-leaf extract, and their joint interventions on glycolipid and energy metabolism in obese mice". Frontiers in Nutrition. 10: 1242157. doi:10.3389/fnut.2023.1242157. ISSN 2296-861X. PMC 10483828. PMID 37693249.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  37. ^ Keleszade, Enver; Patterson, Michael; Trangmar, Steven; Guinan, Kieran J.; Costabile, Adele (2021-01-30). "Clinical Efficacy of Brown Seaweeds Ascophyllum nodosum and Fucus vesiculosus in the Prevention or Delay Progression of the Metabolic Syndrome: A Review of Clinical Trials". Molecules (Basel, Switzerland). 26 (3): 714. doi:10.3390/molecules26030714. ISSN 1420-3049. PMC 7866543. PMID 33573121.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  38. ^ "Production, Trade and Utilization of Seaweeds and Seaweed Products".
  39. ^ J. Norrie & D. A. Hiltz (1999). "Seaweed Extract Research and Applications in Agriculture". Agro Food Industry Hi-tech.
  40. ^ L. G. Lewis; N. F. Stanley; G. G. Guist (1988). "Commercial production and applications of algal hydrocolloides". In C. A. Lembi & J. R. Waaland (ed.). Algae and Human Affairs. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 978-0-521-32115-0.
  41. ^ M. D. Guiry & D. J. Garbary (1991). "Geographical and Taxonomic guide to European Seaweeds of Economic Importance". In M. D. Guiry & Blunden (ed.). Seaweed Resources in Europe: Uses and Potential. John Wiley & Sons, England. ISBN 978-0-471-92947-5.
  42. ^ a b Chang, A. L.; Blakeslee, A. M. H.; Miller, A. W.; Ruiz, G. M. (2011). "Establishment Failure in Biological Invasions: A Case History of Littorina littorea in California, USA". PLoS ONE. 6 (1): e16035. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...616035C. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0016035. PMC 3018467. PMID 21264336.
  43. ^ Seip, K.L. (1979). "A mathematical model for the uptake of heavy metals in benthic algae". Ecological Modelling. 6 (3): 183–197. doi:10.1016/0304-3800(79)90012-7.
  44. ^ Melhus, A.; Seip, KL; Seip, HM; Myklestad, S. (1978). "A preliminary study of the use of benthic algae as biological indicators of heavy metal pollution in Sørfjorden, Norway". Environ. Pollut. 15 (2): 101107. doi:10.1016/0013-9327(78)90099-X.
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