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Cook (profession)

History

Ming China

During the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), the profession of cook was one that served, on the most part, the upper echelons of society, serving the likes of merchants, officials and landlords. ^[1] The development of the culinary world in China during the Ming dynasty, due to the new ‘New World’ crops, such as maize, potatoes, and chilis, created an environment which led to a new and quality foods being accessible to new areas ^[2]. The new variety in foods on offer to cooks even led to various instruction manuals on food preparation and even food being featured in stories ^[3].

Cook Employment

The Cooks that provided prepared food for those of the Chinese population that could afford it would operate through inns, restaurants and even by roaming the streets as a street vendor, thus offering townsfolk a variety of options ^[3]. However, despite the growing variety of foods and food sellers in Ming China, the services of most of the professional cooks was reserved for the elite class ^[1]. The Court was an extremely large employer of cooks throughout the entirety of the Ming dynasty, with over 9,000 cooks employed in the 15th Century, these cooks would then be expected to provide for around 10,000 to 15,000 people on a daily basis, including providing them all with wine ^[1]. Aside from just cooking food to be eaten, the court also employed around 1,800 cooks to prepare sacrifices and offerings for rituals, around 200,000 animals were sacrificed yearly, including geese, pigs, and sheep ^[1]. Cooks would provide meals for merchants and landlords as well, but, they weren’t employed at the same high rate as the cooks employed by the court. The merchants and landlords who could afford the luxury of personally cooked food by a professional chef could usually expect a great quality and even extremely skill-heavy and laborious types of cooking, for example baking and sugar animals ^[1]. This exclusivity of cooks for the rich associated the profession and its work with the greed and gluttony of the elite classes, so, often private food preparation with cooks would be connected with evil or villainy ^[1].

Status of cooks

The profession of cook in Ming China, as mentioned before, was only available to be utilised by the very wealthy, despite the exclusive nature of the job and the status levels of those they prepared food for, the occupation of the cook during Ming times was not a highly coveted profession due to the animal killing involved with being a cook ^[2]. The negative karma associated with killing the sentient living beings, and then using this as a means of making a living, makes the profession of cook one that was described to be avoided ^[2]. The nature of a cooks work and the religious values of Taoism and Buddhism clash heavily which reinforces the idea of cook being an undesirable occupation, furthermore, cooks were known to request the safe passage of their slaughtered animals to the Pure Land through Amitabha ^[2]. Despite these negative aspects of the cook profession, there were some positives for it, being a cook required a certain level of skill and to a certain extent it was artisanal, demanding a certain level of skill and finesse, which in turn earnt this profession and other similar professions some respect ^[2].

Recipe Books

Cooks in Ming China could learn their trade through the multitude of recipe books and herbal guides that was punished during the Ming Dynasty ^[4]. These books and guides were published as a way to promote individual health, and mostly dealt with the health benefits of foods and yangsheng(养生), meaning ‘nourish life’ ^[4]. An example of one of these Recipe books is titled the Old Glutton’s Collection (Laotao ji 老饕集), written by Zhang Dai ^[5]. Zhang Dai not only provided recipes for guidance, he also wrote about the connections between food and health as well as the relationship to class levels and food ^[5]

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f E.N. Anderson, “Involution: Late Imperial China.”, The Food of China. (Yale University Press, 1988), pp. 94-123.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Moll-Murata, Christine. “Work Ethics and Work Valuations in a Period of Commercialization: Ming China, 1500-1644.” International Review of Social History, vol. 56, 2011, pp. 165–195.
^ ^a ^b E.N. Anderson, “China.” Food in Time and Place: The American Historical Association Companion to Food History, edited by Paul Freedman et al., 1st ed., (University of California Press, Oakland, California, 2014), pp. 41–67.
^ ^a ^b Yong Chen “THE CHINESE BRILLAT-SAVARIN.” Chop Suey, USA: The Story of Chinese Food in America, (Columbia University Press, 2014), pp. 153–172.
^ ^a ^b Campbell, Duncan. “The Obsessive Gourmet: Zhang Dai on Food and Drink.” Scribes of Gastronomy: Representations of Food and Drink in Imperial Chinese Literature, edited by Isaac Yue and Siufu Tang, Hong Kong University Press, 2013, pp. 87–96.

[food-1] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f E.N. Anderson, “Involution: Late Imperial China.”, The Food of China. (Yale University Press, 1988), pp. 94-123.

[work-2] Moll-Murata, Christine. “Work Ethics and Work Valuations in a Period of Commercialization: Ming China, 1500-1644.” International Review of Social History, vol. 56, 2011, pp. 165–195.

[time-3] E.N. Anderson, “China.” Food in Time and Place: The American Historical Association Companion to Food History, edited by Paul Freedman et al., 1st ed., (University of California Press, Oakland, California, 2014), pp. 41–67.

[chop-4] Yong Chen “THE CHINESE BRILLAT-SAVARIN.” Chop Suey, USA: The Story of Chinese Food in America, (Columbia University Press, 2014), pp. 153–172.

[drink-5] Campbell, Duncan. “The Obsessive Gourmet: Zhang Dai on Food and Drink.” Scribes of Gastronomy: Representations of Food and Drink in Imperial Chinese Literature, edited by Isaac Yue and Siufu Tang, Hong Kong University Press, 2013, pp. 87–96.

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