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This is an example of a vernal pool in a forest.

Pond-breeding Amphibians

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Decline in amphibian populations is partially attributed to habitat loss and degradation.[1] Pond-breeding amphibians use a variety of habitats throughout their life cycle, increasing the risk that habitat degradation will impact their reproduction and survival. [2] In order to successfully reproduce, they need to have quality habitat for each part of their life cycle, which begins when clutches of eggs are laid in the water.[3] Many breeding ponds are not protected under any conservation regulations.[4][2]

Both climate and landscape changes make vernal pools, one type of breeding pond, highly vulnerable.[4] Wood frogs and spotted salamanders are two types of amphibian that utilize vernal pools to breed.[1] Wood frogs typically lay their eggs in the same pond each year and select specific locations within a pond for the best chance at success.[5] Eggs are laid in a communal egg mass that helps to increase the temperature of the eggs.[5] Warmer Wood frog eggs have been found to hatch faster than those in colder, darker areas.[5] There are environmental gradients even within small ponds, light can help us predict where Wood frogs will deposit egg masses. [5]

Black salamander with yellow spots sitting on wet leaves
[6]Spotted Salamanders migrate to vernal pools to lay their eggs.

Habitat fragmentation caused by agriculture and development has caused aquatic habitats to be increasingly cut off or detached from other habitats.[7] Artificially created storm water ponds can act as habitats for pond-breeding species in urban areas,[7] including those who cannot travel a long distance to a natural pond.[8] Reducing the amount of impervious cover and increasing the amount of forest patch near a breeding pond may have a positive impact on species success in urban areas.[7]

Climate change also impacts wetting and drying cycles of aquatic habitats by affecting precipitation regimes (e.g., the amount and timing of snow or rain) and evaporation rates of surface waters. The hydroperiod of a pond is an indicator of pond-breeding amphibian success.[9] The longer the hydroperiod, the more likely that the pond will not dry out and the more likely for successful reproduction and growth.[10] A balance between the hydroperiod and predation is linked to increased density, richness, and diversity in pond-breeding amphibians.[10] If the hydroperiod is too short, the pond may dry out before eggs can be laid or full developed.[10] Pond size is also a factor in pond-breeding amphibian success. If the pond is too big then it is more likely to have fish, which have a negative correlation with amphibian density, richness, and diversity[10] because of predation and competition.[9]

References

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[8] [5] [1] [2] [7] [11] [12] [4] [13] [14] [9] [10] [3]

  1. ^ a b c Homan, Rebecca Newcomb; Regosin, Jonathan V.; Rodrigues, Daniel M.; Reed, J. Michael; Windmiller, Bryan S.; Romero, L. Michael (2003). "Impacts of varying habitat quality on the physiological stress of spotted salamanders (Ambystoma maculatum)". Animal Conservation. 6 (1): 11–18. doi:10.1017/S1367943003003032. ISSN 1469-1795.
  2. ^ a b c Baldwin, Robert F.; deMaynadier, Phillip G. (2009-08-01). "Assessing threats to pool-breeding amphibian habitat in an urbanizing landscape". Biological Conservation. 142 (8): 1628–1638. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2009.02.039. ISSN 0006-3207.
  3. ^ a b Cayuela, Hugo; Valenzuela-Sánchez, Andrés; Teulier, Loïc; Martínez-Solano, Íñigo; Léna, Jean-Paul; Merilä, Juha; Muths, Erin; Shine, Richard; Quay, Ludivine; Denoël, Mathieu; Clobert, Jean (2020-02-14). "Determinants and Consequences of Dispersal in Vertebrates with Complex Life Cycles: A Review of Pond-Breeding Amphibians". The Quarterly Review of Biology. 95 (1): 1–36. doi:10.1086/707862. ISSN 0033-5770.
  4. ^ a b c "Forest land-use history affects outcomes of habitat augmentation for amphibian conservation". Global Ecology and Conservation. 19: e00686. 2019-07-01. doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00686. ISSN 2351-9894.
  5. ^ a b c d e Freidenburg, L. K. (2017-02-08). "Environmental drivers of carry-over effects in a pond-breeding amphibian, the Wood Frog (Rana sylvatica)". Canadian Journal of Zoology. doi:10.1139/cjz-2016-0080.
  6. ^ Homan, Rebecca Newcomb; Regosin, Jonathan V.; Rodrigues, Daniel M.; Reed, J. Michael; Windmiller, Bryan S.; Romero, L. Michael (2003). "Impacts of varying habitat quality on the physiological stress of spotted salamanders (Ambystoma maculatum)". Animal Conservation. 6 (1): 11–18. doi:10.1017/S1367943003003032. ISSN 1469-1795.
  7. ^ a b c d Guderyahn, Laura B.; Smithers, Ashley P.; Mims, Meryl C. (2016-12-01). "Assessing habitat requirements of pond-breeding amphibians in a highly urbanized landscape: implications for management". Urban Ecosystems. 19 (4): 1801–1821. doi:10.1007/s11252-016-0569-6. ISSN 1573-1642.
  8. ^ a b Snodgrass, Joel; Casey, Ryan; Massal, Laura (2007-01-01). "Nitrogen pollution of stormwater ponds: Potential for toxic effects on amphibian embryos and larvae". Applied Herpetology. 4 (1): 19–29. doi:10.1163/157075407779766714. ISSN 1570-7547.
  9. ^ a b c Kinkead, Karen E.; Otis, David L. (2007/06). "ESTIMATING SUPERPOPULATION SIZE AND ANNUAL PROBABILITY OF BREEDING FOR POND-BREEDING SALAMANDERS". Herpetologica. 63 (2): 151–162. doi:10.1655/0018-0831(2007)63[151:ESSAAP]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0018-0831. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  10. ^ a b c d e Semlitsch, Raymond D.; Peterman, William E.; Anderson, Thomas L.; Drake, Dana L.; Ousterhout, Brittany H. (2015-04-23). "Intermediate Pond Sizes Contain the Highest Density, Richness, and Diversity of Pond-Breeding Amphibians". PLOS ONE. 10 (4): e0123055. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0123055. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 4408075. PMID 25906355.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  11. ^ Jarosiewicz, Anna; Radawiec, Brygida; Hetmanski, Tomasz (2014). "Influence of Water Chemistry and Habitat Parameters on the Abundance of Pond-Breeding Amphibians". Polish Journal of Environmental Studies. 23: 349–355 – via EBSCO.
  12. ^ Juang, Shin-Ruoh; Chen, Szu-Hung; Wu, Chen-Fa (2017/2). "An Expert-Based Assessment Model for Evaluating Habitat Suitability of Pond-Breeding Amphibians". Sustainability. 9 (2): 278. doi:10.3390/su9020278. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  13. ^ Rothermel, Betsie B. (2004). "Migratory Success of Juveniles: A Potential Constraint on Connectivity for Pond-Breeding Amphibians". Ecological Applications. 14 (5): 1535–1546. doi:10.1890/03-5206. ISSN 1939-5582.
  14. ^ Unglaub, Bianca; Steinfartz, Sebastian; Kühne, Daniela; Haas, Alexander; Schmidt, Benedikt R. (2018-03-01). "The relationships between habitat suitability, population size and body condition in a pond-breeding amphibian". Basic and Applied Ecology. 27: 20–29. doi:10.1016/j.baae.2018.01.002. ISSN 1439-1791.
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