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"I wanted to live deep and suck out all the marrow of life"—to "live deliberately," and "simplify, simplify, simplify."
—Henry David Thoreau
John Trumbull's famous painting of the Committee of Five presenting their work to the Congress.
Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States, by Howard Chandler Christy.

The religious beliefs of the U.S. founding fathers were not at all of a singular focus.[1] While, some of them had no affiliation, most of the delegates to the constitutional convention consisted of Protestants except for three Roman Catholics, C. Carroll, D. Carroll, and Fitzsimons. Among the Protestant Constitutional Convention delegates, 28 were Episcopalian, 8 were Presbyterians, 7 were Congregationalists, 2 were Lutherans, 2 were Dutch Reformed, and 2 were Methodists.

Many of the more prominent Founding Fathers were outspoken about their opposition to organized religion or anti-clerical, such as Jefferson. Some of them often related their anti-organized church leanings in their speeches and correspondence, including George Washington, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson (who created the "Jefferson's Bible"), Benjamin Franklin, Ethan Allen, and Thomas Paine. However, a few of the more notable founders, such as Patrick Henry, were strong proponents of traditional religion. Several of the Founding Fathers considered themselves to be deists or held beliefs very similar to that of traditional Deists, including Franklin, Jefferson, Paine and Ethan Allen.[2][3][4]

Notwithstanding the broad spectrum of beliefs held by the Founding Fathers, most viewed religion in a favorable light. This is noted through their statements in speeches and correspondences in which they describe its role in molding "national morality" and securing the rule of law (George Washington), its check on human "wickedness" (Benjamin Franklin), and its preservation of a free government such as America (John Adams).

Regardless, the division of church and state was always emphasized by the founding fathers. For example, the 1797 Treaty of Tripoli affirms that "[t]he government of the United States of America is not in any sense founded on the Christian Religion." This document was ratified by Congress without much debate or contention and stands today as a reminder of the founding fathers' intentions.[5]

Signers of the U.S. Declaration of Independence

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John Adams

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John Adams

Adams was raised a Congregationalist, becoming a Unitarian at a time when most of the Congregational churches around Boston were turning to Unitarianism. Everett (1966) argues that Adams was not a deist, but he used deistic terms in his speeches and writing. He believed in the essential goodness of the creation, but did not believe in the divinity of Christ or that God intervened in the affairs of individuals. Although not anti-clerical, he advocated the separation of church and state. He also believed that regular church service was beneficial to man's moral sense. Everett concludes that "Adams strove for a religion based on a common sense sort of reasonableness" and maintained that religion must change and evolve toward perfection.[6]

Adams often railed against what he saw as overclaiming of authority by the Catholic church.[7]

In 1796, Adams denounced the deism of political opponent Thomas Paine, saying, "The Christian religion is, above all the religions that ever prevailed or existed in ancient or modern times, the religion of wisdom, virtue, equity and humanity, let the Blackguard Paine say what he will."[8]

The Unitarian Universalist Historical Society sheds some light on Adams’s religious beliefs.[9] They point out that Adams was clearly no atheist by quoting from his letter to Benjamin Rush, an early promoter of Universalist thought, “I have attended public worship in all countries and with all sects and believe them all much better than no religion, though I have not thought myself obliged to believe all I heard.” The Society also relates how Rush reconciled Adams to his former friend Thomas Jefferson in 1812, after many bitter political battles. This resulted in correspondence between Adams and Jefferson about many topics, including philosophy and religion. In one of these communications, Adams told Jefferson, "The Ten Commandments and the Sermon on the Mount contain my religion.”[9]

In another letter, Adams reveals his sincere devotion to God, “My Adoration of the Author of the Universe is too profound and too sincere. The Love of God and his Creation; delight, Joy, Tryumph, Exaltation in my own existence, tho' but an Atom, a molecule Organique, in the Universe, are my religion.” He continues by revealing his Universalist sympathies, rejection of orthodox Christian dogma, and his personal belief that he was a true Christian for not accepting such dogma, "Howl, Snarl, bite, Ye Calvinistick! Ye Athanasian Divines, if You will. Ye will say, I am no Christian: I say Ye are no Christians: and there the Account is ballanced. Yet I believe all the honest men among you, are Christians in my Sense of the Word.”[9]

The Society also maintains that Adams rejected orthodox Christian doctrines of the trinity, predestination, yet equated human understanding and the human conscience to “celestial communication” or personal revelation from God. It is also shown that Adams held a strong conviction in life after death or otherwise, as he explained, “you might be ashamed of your Maker.”[9]

Samuel Adams

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Samuel Adams

Adams's parents were devout Puritans, who were tied very closely to the Old South Congregational Church, which they helped build in 1715.[10] In his early years, Adams was heavily influenced by his mother and sister, Mary, who were both extremely religious individuals. His father perhaps exercised the greatest influence on the young boy. His father was a very influential man in Boston, and he played an important role in many of the town's affairs. He was on the board of selectmen, a member of the colonial legislature and an active member of many political organizations and clubs.[11] Deacon Adams was active in many political discussions, and took an active stance against the control exerted by British royalty over the colonies. Adams attended Boston Latin School, an institution known for its prestige, tradition and close ties to Harvard College. Adams was especially studious, showing a profound interest in Greek and Latin literature, to which he would frequently allude in his future writing.[12] As a result of his religious upbringing, Adams felt a special appreciation for church services and the effect they had on parishioners. He too wanted to influence others with his words, and he began to consider his future as a minister.

In 1736, at age fourteen, he entered Harvard College to begin studies in theology. While at Harvard, Adams gradually shifted his interest to politics and political theory.[13] He went on to pursue graduate studies at Harvard after receiving his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1740. Adams began to develop his political beliefs about the rights of colonists and British control over America. During this time, he was greatly influenced by the writings of John Locke, especially his Two Treatises of Government, in which he justified England's 1688 Glorious Revolution removal of James II and installation of William of Orange into power. According to Locke's writing, all men were born with natural rights like "life, health, liberty, or possessions."[14] The government was to protect these rights for the people. So enthralled by the political theory of Locke and others, Adams wrote his master's thesis on "whether it be lawful to resist the Supreme Magistrate, if the Commonwealth cannot otherwise be preserved."[15]

Josiah Bartlett

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Bartlett was a Congregationalist, although there is some reason to believe that his principles were less strict than pertained to the puritans of the day.[16] He possessed a quick and penetrating mind, and, at the same time, he was distinguished for a sound and accurate judgment. A scrupulous justice marked his dealings with all men, and he exhibited great fidelity in his engagements.

Carter Braxton

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Braxton was liberally educated, at the college of William and Mary. He was a gentleman of cultivated mind, and respectable talents. Braxton was Episcopalian; however, few details are known concerning his religious beliefs and convictions.[17]

Charles Carroll

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Carroll was a voice for independence in Maryland. As a Roman Catholic, he was barred from entering politics, practicing law, and voting. However, writing in the Maryland Gazette under the pseudonym "First Citizen," he became a prominent spokesman against the governor's proclamation increasing legal fees to state officers and Protestant clergy.[18] His reputed attendance at the Jesuit preparatory school at Bohemia in Cecil County cannot be confirmed from contemporary records, and he may have been schooled at home before departing for Europe, where he attended the College of St. Omer in France, and graduated from the College of Louis the Grand in 1755.

Samuel Chase

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Chase was an Episcopalian and a devout Christian. He was the only child of a clergyman who had immigrated to Somerset County, Maryland where his father took up a new pulpit. After receiving a traditional classical education from his father, he studied law in Annapolis with attorney John Hall.[19] Chase's career was marked by controversy starting his expulsion in 1762 from the Forensic Club, an Annapolis debating society, for "extremely irregular and indecent" behavior. In 1796, he was appointed as an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court. He was later impeached by the House of Representatives on politically motivated charges of improper judicial behavior. The Senate acquitted him on March 1, 1805.[19]

Abraham Clark

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Clark had a natural grasp for math, so his father hired a tutor to teach Clark surveying. While working as a surveyor, Clark taught himself law and went into practice. He became quite popular and became known as "the poor man's counselor" as he offered to defend poor men when they couldn't afford a lawyer. While he was a Presbyterian, few details are known concerning Clark's religious beliefs and convictions.

George Clymer

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Clymer's father, an Episcopalian, and mother, a disowned Quaker, both died when he was young, leaving him an orphan.[20] His intellects were strong by nature, and made more so by culture and study; but he was diffident and retired. Capable of teaching, he seemed only anxious to learn. Science, literature, and the arts, had all a share of his attention. Sufficiently fixed in his own opinions, he gave a liberal toleration to others, assuming no offensive or unreasonable control over the conduct of those with whom he was associated.[21] While he was identified as both a Quaker and an Episcopalian, Clymer is buried at the Friends Burying Ground, Trenton, New Jersey.[22]

William Ellery

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Ellery was born in Newport. He worked as a merchant, as a customs collector, and as Clerk of the Rhode Island General Assembly. He then started practicing law in 1770. He was active in the Rhode Island Sons of Liberty, and he became a judge of the Supreme Court of Rhode Island. By 1785, he had become an abolitionist. While he was a Congregationalist and a devout Christian, few details are known concerning Clark's religious beliefs and convictions.

William Floyd

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Floyd's studies were limited to a few of the useful branches of knowledge, and these were left unfinished, in consequence of his father's death.[23] While he was a Presbyterian, few details are known concerning Floyd's religious beliefs and convictions.

Benjamin Franklin

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Benjamin Franklin

Like the other advocates of republicanism, Franklin emphasized that the new republic could survive only if the people were virtuous in the sense of attention to civic duty and rejection of corruption. All his life he had been exploring the role of civic and personal virtue, as expressed in Poor Richard's aphorisms.

Although Franklin's parents had intended for him to have a career in the church, Franklin became disillusioned with organized religion after discovering Deism. "I soon became a thorough Deist."[24] He went on to attack Christian principles of free will and morality in a 1725 pamphlet, A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain.[25] He consistently attacked religious dogma, arguing that morality was more dependent upon virtue and benevolent actions than on strict obedience to religious orthodoxy: "I think opinions should be judged by their influences and effects; and if a man holds none that tend to make him less virtuous or more vicious, it may be concluded that he holds none that are dangerous, which I hope is the case with me."[26]

A few years later, Franklin repudiated his 1725 pamphlet as an embarrassing "erratum." In 1790, just about a month before he died, Franklin wrote the following in a letter to Ezra Stiles, president of Yale, who had asked him his views on religion...:

As to Jesus of Nazareth, my Opinion of whom you particularly desire, I think the System of Morals and his Religion, as he left them to us, the best the world ever saw or is likely to see; but I apprehend it has received various corrupt changes, and I have, with most of the present Dissenters in England, some Doubts as to his divinity; tho' it is a question I do not dogmatize upon, having never studied it, and I think it needless to busy myself with it now, when I expect soon an Opportunity of knowing the Truth with less Trouble.[27]

Like most Enlightenment intellectuals, Franklin separated virtue, morality, and faith from organized religion, although he felt that if religion in general grew weaker, morality, virtue, and society in general would also decline. Thus he wrote Thomas Paine, "If men are so wicked with religion, what would they be if without it." According to David Morgan,[28] Franklin was a proponent of all religions. He prayed to "Powerful Goodness" and referred to God as the "INFINITE." John Adams noted that Franklin was a mirror in which people saw their own religion: "The Catholics thought him almost a Catholic. The Church of England claimed him as one of them. The Presbyterians thought him half a Presbyterian, and the Friends believed him a wet Quaker." Whatever else Benjamin Franklin was, concludes Morgan, "he was a true champion of generic religion." Ben Franklin was noted to be "the spirit of the Enlightenment."

Walter Isaacson argues that Franklin became uncomfortable with an unenhanced version of deism and came up with his own conception of the Creator.[26] Franklin outlined his concept of deity in 1728, in his Articles of Belief and Acts of Religion.[29] From this, Isaacson compares Franklin's conception of deity to that of strict deists and orthodox Christians. He concludes that unlike most pure deists, Franklin believed that a faith in God should inform our daily actions, but that, like other deists, his faith was devoid of sectarian dogma. Isaacson also discusses Franklin's conception that God had created beings who do interfere in wordly matters, a point that has led some commentators, most notably A. Owen Aldridge, to read Franklin as embracing some sort of polytheism, with a bevy of lesser gods overseeing various realms and planets.

On July 4, 1776, Congress appointed a committee that included Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and John Adams to design the Great Seal of the United States.[30] Each member of the committee proposed a unique design: Franklin's proposal featured a design with the motto: "Rebellion to Tyrants is Obedience to God." This design was to portray a scene from the Book of Exodus, complete with Moses, the Israelites, the pillar of fire, and George III depicted as Pharaoh.[31]

At the Constitutional Convention in 1787, when the convention seemed headed for disaster due to a vitoral debate, the elderly Franklin displayed his conviction that was intimately involved in human affairs by requesting that each day's session begin with prayers. Franklin recalled the days of the Revolutionary War, when the American leaders assembled in prayer daily, seeking "divine guidance" from the "Father of lights." He then rhetorically asked, "And have we now forgotten that powerful friend? Or do we imagine that we no longer need his assistance?"[32]

Although Franklin may have financially supported one particular Presbyterian group in Philadelphia,[33] it nevertheless appears that he never formally joined any particular Christian denomination or any other religion.

According to the epitaph Franklin wrote for himself at the age of 20, it is clear that he believed in a physical resurrection of the body some time after death. Whether this belief was held throughout his life is unclear.

Elbridge Gerry

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Gerry was a graduate of Harvard College, where he studied to be a doctor. Instead, he worked in his father's shipping business and came to early prominence over his opposition to commerce taxes. He was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation. He was one of the three men who refused to sign the Constitution because it did not have a Bill of Rights. While he was an Episcopalian, few details are known concerning Gerry's religious beliefs and convictions.

Button Gwinnett

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Gwinnett was born in 1732 in the parish of Down Hatherley in Gloucestershire, England, to Reverend Samuel and Anne Gwinnett. He was baptized in St. Catherine’s Church in Gloucester on April 10 1735. He was an Episcopalian and a Congregationalist; however, few specifics are known concerning Gwinnett's religious beliefs and convictions.

Lyman Hall

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Hall was a Congregationalist and studied theology. In 1749, he was called to the pulpit of Stratfield Parish (now Bridgeport, CT). His pastorate was a stormy one: a group of parishioners opposed his ordination; in 1751, he was dismissed after charges against his moral character which, according to one biography, "were supported by proof and also by his own confession." He continued to preach for two more years, filling vacant pulpits, while he studied medicine and taught school. Later, while governor of Georgia, Hall advocated the chartering of a state university, believing that education, particularly religious education, would result in a more virtuous citizenry.

John Hancock

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Hancock was a Congregationalist. His father and grandfather were both ministers of the gospel. His father is represented as a pious, industrious, and faithful pastor; a friend of the people, and a patron of learning. He died while Hancock was an infant, and he left him to the care of a paternal uncle. While seemingly very religious, few specifics are recorded of concerning his personal beliefs and convictions.

Benjamin Harrison

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Harrison was an Episcopalian; however, few details are known concerning his religious beliefs and convictions. He was educated at the College of William and Mary.

John Hart

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Hart was a Presbyterian. While gaining the sobriquet "Honest John," he acquired considerable property. He was a member of the Pennington Presybterian Church, but donated property to the Baptists so they could build a church. He is buried in the yard of the First Baptist Church at Hopewell, New Jersey. Few other details are known concerning his religious beliefs and convictions.

Joseph Hewes

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Hewes’s parents were part of the Quaker Society of Friends. He was formally educated at Princeton and after college he became an apprentice of a merchant. Traditionally the Quakers were pacifists. Hewes had to break ties with the Quakers because of conflicting views. Hewes became an Episcopalian, and he was buried with Masonic funeral honors. Few other details are known concerning his religious beliefs and convictions.

Thomas Heyward, Jr.

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Heyward was an Episcopalian; however, few details are known concerning his religious beliefs and convictions.

William Hooper

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Hooper's father was a minister who studied at the University of Edinburgh prior to immigrating to Boston and who had hoped that Hooper would follow in his footsteps as an Episcopalian minister,[34] However, Hooper did not wish to pursue a career in the clergy as his father had hoped. Instead, he decided on a career in law. Hooper was burried in the Presbyterian Churchyard in Hillsborough, North Carolina.[35] His remains were later reinterred at Guilford Courthouse National Military Ground.

Others

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Constitutional Convention delegates

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Delegates who signed

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Delegates who left the Convention early and did not sign

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Delegates who refused to sign

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Elbridge Gerry

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Gerry was a graduate of Harvard College, where he studied to be a doctor. Instead, he worked in his father's shipping business and came to early prominence over his opposition to commerce taxes. He was one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Confederation. He was one of the three men who refused to sign the Constitution because it did not have a Bill of Rights. While he was an Episcopalian, few details are known concerning Gerry's religious beliefs and convictions.

George Mason

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Mason believed that slave trade should be abolished (even though he himself owned slaves), he believed in the disestablishment of the church, and he was a strong anti-federalist. A bill of rights was an important issue for him in the constitutional convention. He didn't want the United States to be like England. He foresaw sectional strife and feared the power of government.[36] While he was an Episcopalian, few details are known concerning Mason's religious beliefs and convictions.

Edmund Randolph

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Randolph was educated at the College of William and Mary. After graduation, he began reading law with his father and uncle. As a delegate from Virginia to the Constitutional Convention, Randolph introduced the Virginia Plan as an outline for a new national government. He also argued against the importation of slaves. While he was an Episcopalian, few details are known concerning Randolph's religious beliefs and convictions.

Other Founding Fathers

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See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ See Lambert (2003).
  2. ^ See, e.g., Deism, Religioustolerance.org
  3. ^ Jim Peterson (2007) "The Revolution of Belief: Founding Fathers, Deists, Orthodox Christians, and the Spiritual Context of 18th Century America.
  4. ^ Robert L. Johnson, "The Deist Roots of the United States of America".
  5. ^ Mother Jones. "The Great Debate of Our Season".
  6. ^ Robert B. Everett, "The Mature Religious Thought of John Adams," Proceedings of the South Carolina Historical Association (1966), p 49-57; [ISSN 0361-6207].
  7. ^ See TeachingAmericanHistory.org: " A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law", John Adams, 1765
  8. ^ The Works of John Adams (1854), vol III, p 421, diary entry for July 26, 1796.
  9. ^ a b c d "Unitarian Universalist Historical Society Biography". Retrieved 2007-12-11.
  10. ^ Puls (2006), p21.
  11. ^ Puls (2006), p23.
  12. ^ Hosmer (1888), p15.
  13. ^ Puls (2006), p25.
  14. ^ Locke, John (1689). Two Treatises of Government: In the Former, The False Principles and Foundation of Sir Robert Filmer, And His Followers, are Detected and Overthrown. The Latter is an Essay concerning The True Original, Extent, and End of Civil-Government. London. pp. p191. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Unknown parameter |authorlinks= ignored (help)
  15. ^ Wells (1865), Vol. 1, p10.
  16. ^ Biography of Josiah Bartlett by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich (1856).
  17. ^ Biography of Carter Braxton by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich (1856).
  18. ^ aoc.gov
  19. ^ a b "Chase, Samuel (1741- 1811)". Maryland Online Encyclopedia (MdOE). Maryland Online Encyclopedia. 2005. Retrieved 2008-17-01. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  20. ^ Biography and portrait of George Clymer at the University of Pennsylvania.
  21. ^ George Clymer Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich (1856).
  22. ^ George Clymer at FindAGrave.com.
  23. ^ William Floyd Biography by Rev. Charles A. Goodrich (1856).
  24. ^ Franklin, Benjamin. Benjamin Franklin's Autobiography. Chapter IV. reprinted on USGenNet.org.
  25. ^ reprinted on The History Carper.
  26. ^ a b Franklin Defines His God. BeliefNet.com.
  27. ^ Van Doren, Carl. Benjamin Franklin. (1938). Penguin reprint 1991.
  28. ^ Morgan, David T. Benjamin Franklin: Champion of Generic Religion. The Historian. 62#4 2000. pp 722+
  29. ^ reprinted at The History Carper.
  30. ^ Skousen, W. Cleon. The Five Thousand Year Leap. National Center for Constitutional Studies (1981), pp. 17-18. summarizes how this committee created and approved the first proposed design for the seal (which ultimately was not adopted).
  31. ^ First Great Seal Committee – July/August 1776. Great Seal.com.
  32. ^ The Congressional Prayer Caucus. White House.gov.
  33. ^ World Wide School.com.
  34. ^ Dennis Brindell Fradin, The Signers: The 56 Stories Behind the Declaration of Independence (New York: Walker and Co., 2002), 112
  35. ^ Lossing, Lives of the Signers, 204.
  36. ^ Broadwater, Jeff (2006-09-01). George Mason: Forgotten Founder. Chapel Hill: Fred W. Morrison Fund for Southern Studies of the University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-3053-6.

References

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  • Richard D. Brown, "The Founding Fathers of 1776 and 1787: A Collective View," The William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd Ser., Vol. 33, No. 3 (Jul., 1976), pp. 465-480.
  • Joseph J. Ellis, Founding Brothers: The Revolutionary Generation (2002) (Pulitzer Prize).
  • Jack P. Greene, "The Social Origins of the American Revolution: An Evaluation and an Interpretation," Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 88, No. 1 (Mar. 1973), pp. 1-22.
  • P.M.G. Harris, "The Social Origins of American Leaders: The Demographic Foundations," Perspectives in American History 3 (1969): 159-364.
  • Mark E. Kann, The Gendering of American Politics: Founding Mothers, Founding Fathers, and Political Patriarchy, Praeger (1999).
  • Adrienne Koch, Power, Morals, and the Founding Fathers: Essays in the Interpretation of the American Enlightenment (1961)
  • Frank Lambert, The Founding Fathers and the Place of Religion in America. 2003.
  • Martin, James Kirby. Men in rebellion: Higher governmental leaders and the coming of the American Revolution, (1973)
  • Robert Previdi, "Vindicating the Founders: Race, Sex, Class, and Justice in the Origins of America," Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 29 (1999)
  • Cokie Roberts, Founding Mothers: The Women Who Raised Our Nation (2005)
  • Gordon S. Wood, Revolutionary Characters: What Made the Founders Different (2006)
  • Hosmer, James K. Samuel Adams. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1885. No ISBN available.
  • Miller, John C. Sam Adams, Pioneer in Propaganda. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1936. No ISBN available.
  • Puls, Mark. Samuel Adams: Father of the American Revolution. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. ISBN 1-4039-7582-5.
  • Unger, Harlow. John Hancock: Merchant King and American Patriot, Hoboken: Castle Books, 2000, ISBN 0785820264
  • Wells, William V. The Life and Public Services of Samuel Adams: Being a Narrative of His Acts and Opinions, and of His Agency in Producing and Forwarding the American Revolution, with Extracts From His Correspondence, State Papers, and Political Essays. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1865. No ISBN available.
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