User:EJAlly/sandbox

Articles I can refer to:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_First

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_desert_in_West_Oakland

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_desert

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_security

My focus for the Food Justice Wikipedia article we will be creating is on: Predictions with the Trump Administration, and how that will affect folks' food access.

Predictions for Trump Administration

https://food.good.is/articles/trump-food-policy

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2017/02/03/trumps-draft-plan-to-cut-off-food-stamps-for-immigrants-could-cause-some-u-s-citizens-to-go-hungry/

http://civileats.com/2017/01/31/will-more-people-go-hungry-if-we-lose-the-affordable-care-act/

http://civileats.com/2017/01/23/whats-at-stake-for-ag-policy-under-trumps-usda-pick-former-georgia-governor-sonny-perdue/

http://civileats.com/2017/01/16/food-and-more-expanding-the-movement-for-the-trump-era/

Draft:

DRAFT/OUTLINE - Food Justice in the United States

Define Food Justice: 1.      Define Food Justice: The food justice movement gained support in the 1990s, drawing inspiration from the racial justice frame of the civil rights and environmental justice movements in the U.S., along with concern over the disproportionate impacts of diet-related disease on low-income communities of color. Just Food describes food justice as “communities exercising their right to grow, sell, and eat food that is fresh, nutritious, affordable, culturally appropriate, and grown locally with care for the well-being of the land, workers and animals (Brent, Schiavoni et. al, 2015).

To cite later:

Brent, Zoe W., Christina M. Schiavoni, and Alberto Alonso-Fradejas. “Contextualising Food Sovereignty: The Politics of Convergence among Movements in the USA.” Third World Quarterly 36, no. 3 (March 2015): 618–35. doi:10.1080/01436597.2015.1023570.

Subtopic 1:  History of Food Justice in the USA (compare & contrast w/today)

• 1906 The Jungle Upton Sinclair first time widespread public attention brought to FJ (https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10460-008-9120-6)
• Hierarchy of injustice
• Note: injustice occurs in all aspects of the food system, from production→ to consumption. ie production: health of farm workers, toxins in soil/water, consumption: poverty, food desert, etc.
• 5 cents for fairness campaign 1990s
• US Agricultural Justice Project (when?)
• Later the idea of intersectionality (w/ race, class, environment)
• http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/23251042.2016.1227229?needAccess=true
• “the colorblindness inherent to neoliberal projects permeates parts of the food movement, in turn depoliticizing activist interventions”
• Black panthers free breakfast program (Food + racial justice) exemplifies intersectionality and history of FJ before the term was created
• http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.2979/racethmulglocon.5.1.83.pdf

Subtopic 2: Food Deserts and Race/Income

• Define food desert -- from Food Desert wiki page
  • “A food desert exists when particularly nutritious food is difficult to obtain due to availability, affordability, distance, or number of procurement points – typically operationalized as supermarkets – in a given area, urban or rural.”

IMAGES

Map of No Car and No Supermarket w/in 1 Mile http://americannutritionassociation.org/newsletter/usda-defines-food-deserts

Food Deserts in Chicago

http://research.prattsils.org/blog/coursework/information-visualization/food-desert-new-york-state-2010-census-demographics/

( Source: Disparities and access to healthy food in the United States: A review of food deserts literature http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1353829210000584 )

• Socioeconomic Implications
  • Higher food prices & lower quality
    • Higher cost possibly due to higher crime/theft rates
    • Causes cycle where higher prices lead to more theft
    • Sacrifice quality for convenience; can’t leave immediate neighborhood

• • Distance to supermarkets & lack of transportation
    • Lack of access to a car/ability to pay for gas
    • Farther to walk, less public transportation, unsafe areas if transportation is unavailable

• Racial disparities in food disparities
  • Availability of chain supermarkets in white vs black communities, even among impoverished communities
    • INTERSECTIONALITY plays a role in food justice

• • From Food Justice: “Research indicates that low-income households shop where food prices are lower, and generally cannot afford healthful foods. Compared with residents of higher-income neighborhoods, low SES (socioeconomic status) individuals generally have diets higher in meat and processed foods with a low intake of fruits and vegetables.[25] “
    • Source: Ming-Chen Yeh and David L. Katz. "Food, Nutrition, and the Health of Urban Populations". In Cities and the Health of the Public (Nicholas Freudenberg, Sandro Galea, and David Vlahov, eds.). Vanderbilt University Press (2006), pp. 106-127. ISBN 0-8265-1512-6.
  • Cite evidence relating income to race
    • Sources = literally so many choose like 2 or 3

( Source: http://www.racialjusticeproject.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/30/2012/06/NYLS-Food-Deserts-Report.pdf)

• Structural Causes of Food Deserts
  • Residential segregation (diff than nation statistics) is correlated with differences in resource availabilities; result of govt policies
    • The New Deal & racist implications
      • “ The FHA underwriting manual of 1939 specifically stated that “if a neighborhood is to retain stability, it is necessary that properties shall continue to be occupied by the same social and racial classes.” (James H. Carr and Nandinee K. Kutty, The New Imperative for Equality, in Segregation: The Rising Cost for Americans 40, 8-9 (James H. Carr & Nandinee K. Kutty, eds., 2008)
    • Zoning policies contribute to segregation
  • Relocation of grocery stores & retailers to suburbs as middle-income whites moved out of cities to govt-subsidized suburbs
    • Take advantage of inexpensive suburb land
    • Scarcity of supermarkets in urban communities
• Effects of Food Deserts on Communities of Color
  • Health implications (also link to food desert wikipedia)
    • Obesity, high blood pressure, diabetes
    • Lack of research on relationship between food environment and consumption
    • Diet quality improves with increases in income
  • Educational outcomes
    • Early nutrition connected to cognitive development, emotional stability
  • Less job opportunities
    • Retail jobs associated with supermarkets are not present
    • Markets are “anchors”, generate & feed nearby business
• Policy/Structural Improvements to be Made
  • Fund small stores/bodegas
    • Paying for refrigerators so that produce, milk, etc can be sold where there is a lack of supermarkets/big chains (a lot of examples on p.31 from Racial Justice Project)

Source: http://www.chc-inc.org/downloads/Food_Desert_to_Oasis_07-12-2010.pdf

• • • Blueprint for national scale
    • Development initiatives, barriers, and recommendations
      • Similar to Racial Justice Project, recommends developing small corner stores since access to full sized markets is limited
      • Easier to make healthy choices w/o changing shopping habits
      • Incentives for store owners; grants/loans
      • Must accept SNAP and WIC benefits
    • Example: LA’s new Community Market Conversion Program
    • Case Study: 2008 Healthy Bodegas NYC
  • Farmer’s markets
    • South LA has 6, West LA has 16
    • Program that provides machines to make SNAP and WIC accepted
    • Incentives to purchase
      • Example: NYC’s Health Bucks Program
  • Local efforts
    • Oakland - https://foodfirst.org/ebuffs/
      • East Bay Urban Farming
        • LOCAL FARMS AS A RESPONSE TO FOOD INJUSTICES
        • Connected with farmer’s markets, supports economic growth, etc

Subtopic 3: Food Assistance Programs

• Try to define food assistance program and who manages them
• https://www.fns.usda.gov/programs-and-services

Food Programs and its descriptions

• Food Distribution Programs
  • Commodity Supplemental Food Program (CSFP)
  • Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations (FDPIR)
  • The Emergency Food Assistance Program (TEFAP)
• Child Nutrition Programs
  • Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP)
  • Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Program (FFVP)
  • National School Lunch Program (NSLP)
  • School Breakfast Program (SBP)
  • Special Milk Program (SMP)
  • Summer Food Service Program (SFSP)
• Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Programs (SNAP)
  • Process of getting food benefits
  • Race that gets the most food stamps
• Women, Infants, and Children (WIC)
  • Farmers’ Market Nutrition Program (FMNP)
  • Senior Farmers’ Market Nutrition Program (SFMNP)
• Food Assistance Programs at UC Berkeley?

• Different types of groups who are eligible for programs
  • http://www.feedingamerica.org/take-action/advocate/federal-hunger-relief-programs/
• Recommendations for Food Justice Policy
  • Subsidies
  • Food justice movement?
  • National Food Policy (NFP)
    • Healthier population, a reduction in hunger, mitigation of (and adaptation to) climate change, decreases in energy consumption, etc
    • https://medium.com/food-is-the-new-internet/a-national-food-policy-for-the-21st-century-7d323ee7c65f#.bbwm10d6c
• The effects of these programs on race?
• How much money goes into these programs?

Subtopic 4: Predictions for Trump Administration

Use this quote somewhere: “Sustainable” is a word that we must now apply to democracy itself: a nation built on perpetuating injustice and the exploitation of people and nature doesn’t qualify. And a “sustainable food system” cannot exist inside an unsustainable political and economic system”- Pollan, Salvador, Bittman and De Schutter

http://civileats.com/2017/01/16/food-and-more-expanding-the-movement-for-the-trump-era/

• Corporate giants dominate the development of public policies through the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). - http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/10.2979/racethmulglocon.5.1.103.pdf

• Head of EPA who doesn’t believe in climate change or environmental protection
  • Climate change will disproportionately affect poor and people of color
• Health and Human Services Secretary who is hostile to public support for health care
• Anti-democracy Congress
• Head of USDA championed immigration crackdown: http://www.motherjones.com/environment/2017/01/some-sketchy-things-trunps-usda-pick-did-while-governor-georgia
• President who evinces little respect for democratic institutions

http://civileats.com/2017/01/16/food-and-more-expanding-the-movement-for-the-trump-era/

• Poor diets disproportionately affect economically marginalized and politically disenfranchised populations
  • Can’t improve diets without addressing income inequality
• Child Nutrition Act (WIC and School Lunch) are up for reauthorization and has been targeted for deep cuts by Republican leadership

http://civileats.com/2017/01/31/will-more-people-go-hungry-if-we-lose-the-affordable-care-act/

• As Congress endeavors to dismantle ACA, the funding and incentives for the health care screenings along with community-wide social services to address food security are already in jeopardy

https://food.good.is/articles/trump-food-policy

• Without the ACA, uninsured people might not get to hospitals in time. And in the long term, climate change might wipe out agriculture in the United States as we know it.

https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2017/02/03/trumps-draft-plan-to-cut-off-food-stamps-for-immigrants-could-cause-some-u-s-citizens-to-go-hungry/

• The executive order that would restrict the welfare benefits available to immigrants would restrict access to needs-based nutrition programs like SNAP and WIC.
  • They are currently accessed by millions of first-generation immigrants both for themselves and on behalf of their second-generation citizen children.

• undocumented workers do not even get SNAP or WIC

Stuff to save to sandbox:

Food justice is the right of all people to grow, sell, and consume healthy food. Another definition, from a non-profit organization called Well House, is that food justice seeks to ensure the benefits and risks where, what, and how food is grown, produced, transported, distributed, accessed and eaten are equally shared. Just Food, a food justice organization that increases awareness and action around food and farm issues, describes healthy food as “fresh, nutritious, affordable, culturally-appropriate, and grown locally with care for the well-being of the land, workers, and animals.”

The food justice movement gained support in the 1990s, drawing inspiration from the racial justice framework of the civil rights and environmental justice movements in the U.S. In addition, the disproportionate impacts of diet-related illness on low-income communities of color and the simultaneous food sovereignty global peasant movement La Via Campesina gave increasing attention to food justice.

History of Food Justice in the United States

The industrial revolution and in the mid-18th century and subsequent urbanization shifted food production from individual farms, gardens, and local butchers to distant, large conglomerate farms, marking a historic shift from people producing their own food to having little knowledge of their food's processing and origins. Although the term Food Justice was not yet invented, the movement for public knowledge of their food's production originated after Upton Sinclair published The Jungle in 1906, bringing widespread attention to unhygienic practices in the meat industry. The green revolution, from the 1930s to the late 1960s, exacerbated the environmental impacts of food production due to the advent of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. However, supporters of the green revolution maintain that it allowed for much greater crop yields and agricultural efficiency, and thus allowed for population growth, improved health outcomes due to more adequate nutrition, and lower food prices. The shift from local to industrial food production also gave people more time to pursue other tasks or professions, contributing to economic growth.

In 1969, the Black Panther Party established the Free Breakfast for Children program in Oakland, California, illustrating how the ability to secure healthy food intersected with race and class. The program provided free breakfast to 20,000 schoolchildren in predominantly low income Black communities whose families struggled to afford food, which had affected their academic performance and contributed to the cycle of poverty.

In the 1990s, the 5 cents for Fairness campaign was enacted by the United Farm Workers to encourage improved conditions for farm workers with a just 5 cent price increase on produce. Conceptualization of food justice as a specific movement emerged in the 1990s from the broader anti-racist and environmental justice movements.

Global Food Justice

US Huey helicopter spraying Agent Orange in Vietnam Food justice is an issue in other regions of the world as well. Developing countries may grow food for export, yet struggle to feed their populations. Additionally, food sources may be contaminated by outside military forces, such as in the cases of Agent Orange in Vietnam, in which large quantities of an herbicide were sprayed on villages and farmlands with intergenerational adverse health effects, and radioactive fallout from nuclear tests in the Bikini Atoll of the Marshall Islands, in which nuclear bomb tests conducted by the United States military contaminated local food such as coconut with radiation, leading to food insecurity and health issues. Global food system activists such as Vandana Shivahave worked to improve food access and sustainable agriculture in the developing world. Global instances of food injustice generally reflect wider power relations and the North-South Divide.

Food Deserts

A food desert is a region or community with limited access to healthy and nutritious food; this deficiency can be due to a variety of factors, including cost and distance to grocery stores. A large portion of the food justice movement is concerned with how food deserts are distributed and the correlations between lack of access to food and both race and income.

A 2010 review of food deserts literature found both socioeconomic implications and racial disparities connected to food disparity in areas with lower access to food. In low income communities, high crime rates lead to a cycle of theft and increased food prices; as a result of this, citizens who are unable to travel outside of their immediate neighborhoods sacrifice quality for convenience. The US Census Bureau report on median income by race in the United States from 1967 to 2008. The intersectionality of race and socioeconomic status is important to consider in examining cases of food injustices. The United States Census Bureau has consistently reported Black and Hispanic Americans as having lower median household incomes than White Americans. Among communities in Detroit, Michigan, impoverished black communities are farther from the closest supermarkets than analogous impoverished white communities, and on average, have less supermarkets within a three mile radius than impoverished white communities.

Structural Causes of Food Deserts

One proposed cause of food deserts is structurally faulty legislation that disproportionately affects people of color and socioeconomic minorities. Components of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal contained racial implications that affect living patterns today. The Fair Housing Administration's 1939 manual stated that “if a neighborhood is to retain stability, it is necessary that properties shall continue to be occupied by the same social and racial classes.” Because of this policy, some home loan benefits were unavailable to minorities. Additionally, urban zoning policies of the 1950s may have contributed to segregated living patterns.

One effect of restrictive zoning policies is the pattern coined “white flight”. As middle-income white Americans began moving to government subsidized suburbs, grocery stores and food retailers followed. The opportunity to purchase inexpensive suburb land led to the rise of massive supermarkets in which multiple varieties of products were sold in one store. As a result, many urban markets, which were more expensive to maintain than their suburban counterparts, were abandoned.

Effects on Low-income Communities and Communities of Color

The US Department of Agriculture estimates that the number of people living in low-income communities with low access to supermarkets is 23.5 million, around 8 percent of the US population.

Food deserts have many health implications, including being correlated with increased BMI and increased risk of cardiovascular disease. A US study conducted between 1999 and 2004 found that obesity rates among African Americans and Hispanics were 15 and 6.8 percent higher, respectively, than that of white Americans.

Diet quality tends to improve with increases in income. Data from the US Department of Agriculture indicate that low income households spend less money on food than households in other income brackets; the USDA data also show that the foods most commonly purchased by low-income households are often those containing fat, oils, sugar, potatoes, and refined grains.

Academic Consequences

Food deserts may affect academic achievement in affected regions. The National Food Service Management Institute states that poor nutrition leads to students’ increased susceptibility to illness, and that undernourishment results in decreased cognitive functioning. Additionally, there is evidence that high blood lead levels can negatively affect academic performance and social behavior in children. Diets with high calcium and iron intake help reduce the absorption and toxicity of lead for exposed children.

Economic Impact

Employment opportunities associated with food businesses are often absent in food desert communities; for example, retail jobs associated with supermarkets may be absent. Grocery stores can create up to 200 jobs each and act as anchors for nearby businesses.

Case Study: South Los Angeles

A case study by the Community Health Council on food deserts in South Los Angeles suggests developing small corner stores in especially deprived regions.The council notes that because access to full sized markets is often limited in low-income areas, it is important to create incentives for store owners to sell healthy products and to ensure stores are able to accept SNAP and WIC benefits. The goal of this initiative is to allow people to make healthy choices without changing their shopping habits. The study looks to New York City’s 2008 Healthy Bodega program, which aimed to increase the variety, availability, and quality of healthy food sold at NYC bodegas as a key example of success of this kind of initiative.

Food Assistance Programs

Food assistance programs are important for food justice because they help struggling groups of people get the healthy food that they need to sustain and nourish their bodies. Food programs are heavily depended on by low-income people or families who are unable to afford food on their own as well as have access to healthy food options. The Food and Nutrition Service (FNS) administers the federal food and nutrition assistance programs that enables families access to food, and promotes healthy eating through nutrition educational programs. FNS was established August 8, 1969 but many of the food programs existed long before this agency became its own agency. There are many types of programs that are mostly geared to certain groups like students, seniors, women and many others. Some examples include Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) that was formerly known as the Food Stamp Program, National School Lunch Program (NSLP) and Senior Farmers' Market Nutrition Program (SFMNP).

Food Distribution Programs

Food distribution programs strengthen food security through high quality, 100% American-grown USDA commodity distribution and food assistance to low-income groups.

Commodity Supplemental Food Program (CSFP)

Commodity Supplemental Food Program is geared towards improving the health of low-income elderly persons at least 60 years of age by supplementing their diets with a monthly package of healthy, nutritious USDA Foods. It serves about 595,000 low-income people each month, and is the only USDA nutrition program that provides food assistance for seniors. In addition to seniors who are eligible for this program, women, infants, and children currently receiving these benefits who were certified to receive help on or before February 6, 2014 are also eligible to continue to receive assistance under the program rules in effect on that date, in accordance with the Agricultural Act of 2014. Women, infants, and children who apply to participate in CSFP on or after February 7, 2014 cannot be certified to participate in the program.

Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations (FDPIR)

Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations provides USDA Foods to income-eligible Native Americans families and households living on or near Indian reservations, and in the State of Oklahoma.

The Emergency Food Assistance Program (TEFAP)

TEFAP helps supplement the diets of low-income Americans from different age groups by providing them with emergency food assistance like food banks at no cost at all.

Child Nutrition Programs

Child Nutrition Programs provide healthy, nutritious meals and snacks to American children.

Examples of Child Nutrition Programs include:

1. Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP): This program provides nutritious meals and snacks to both children and adults in designated child and adult care centers.
2. National School Lunch Program (NSLP): This program provides nutritionally balanced lunch to eligible and qualified children on school days.
3. School Breakfast Program (SBP): This program provides nutritional balanced breakfast to eligible and qualified children on school days.
4. Summer Food Service Program (SFSP): This program provides free meals and snacks to low-income children during the summer months when they are out of school.

Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)

SNAP, formerly known as the Food Stamp Program, provides nutrition assistance to millions of eligible, low-income individuals and families and provides economic benefits to communities. SNAP is the cornerstone of food programs and initiated the creation of various other programs. The pilot food stamp program happened during 1961-1964, and President Kennedy's called on an executive order for an expanded food distribution. Shortly after, he announced that the food stamps be purchased.

Women, Infants & Children (WIC)

Women, Infants and Children is a federally-funded health and nutrition program for low-income pregnant and postpartum women, infants and children under 5 years old. WIC provides nutritous food, nutrition and breastfeeding education, and assists families with access to relevant healtcare services. Examples of WIC include:

1. Farmers’ Market Nutrition Program (FMNP)
2. Senior Farmers’ Market Nutrition Program (SFMNP)

Recommendations for Food Justice Policy

National Food Policy (NFP)[edit | edit source]

NFP will be the nation's first policy surrounding the issue of food that aims to promote health of our citizens and of the environment at each link in the food chain. This can be anywhere, from the farm to the supermarket, to our schools, dinner tables, and restaurants. If this policy is properly implemented and conceived, it will result in a healthier population, a reduction in hunger, mitigation of (and adaptation to) climate change, decreases in energy consumption, and many more benefits.

Local Efforts

One local solution to improving food accessibility is through the proliferation of local and community farms. Food First, an independent organization based in Oakland, CA, aims to connect and promote the economic growth of East Bay Area urban farmers by supporting regular farmer's markets. As mentioned earlier, expanding bodegas and small corner stores in areas with limited access to full-sized commercial markets may help disadvantaged peoples purchase healthier and higher quality foods.

The Agricultural Justice Project (AJP), founded in 1999, offers farms the opportunity to gain Food Justice Certification (FJC). The principles of the certification are that "all workers have the right to safe working conditions, just treatment, and fair compensation and all farmers have the right to fair, equitable, transparent agreements and pricing." The AJP aims to encourage participation at every step in agricultural food production and sales, from food to table.

Future of Food Justice

Food justice advocates have expressed concern regarding the Trump Administration and its potential impact on communities being able to obtain healthy, affordable food.

Trans-Pacific Partnership[edit | edit source]

The Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) is a trade deal that greatly expanded the rights of corporations over workers, consumers, food producers, and the environment. U.S. President Donald Trump has withdrawn the United States from the TPP. This trade deal attempted to bring 40% of the world’s economy into one trading region, and the U.S. would have been the largest partner. Trump's proposed alternative is a bilateral trade agreement that will continue to threaten small farmers.

Environmental Protection Agency[edit | edit source]

Administrator[edit | edit source]

Scott Pruitt was nominated by President Donald Trump as Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. Pruitt rejects the scientific consensus on climate change. He has stated that "the climate is changing, and human activity contributes to that in some manner" but rejects that carbon dioxide "is a primary contributor to the global warming." Rally to Oppose Scott Pruitt before he became EPA Administrator

Environmental Justice office[edit | edit source]

Mustafa Ali, the head of the Environmental Protection Agency’s office on Environmental Justice, has resigned as a result of the Trump Administration’s proposal to decrease funding for programs that help poor and minority communities. The EPA Environmental Justice office is under threat to be completely dismantled.

Federal Funding[edit | edit source]

The 2018 preliminary budget proposal has been released. Trump plans to decrease EPA funding by 31 percent and eliminate a fifth of its employees. Funding for drinking water infrastructure would remain, but scientific research is under threat of being cut. Over 50 programs would be gone altogether, such as grants to help states stop air pollution,  infrastructure assistance to Alaskan native villages along the  Mexican border, Energy Star, and more.

Affordable Care Act[edit | edit source]

The Affordable Care Act is threatened to be terminated under the Trump Administration. This means that social services addressing food security are at risk of losing funding or disappearing.

Food Policy[edit | edit source]

The Child Nutrition Act is up for reauthorization. The reauthorization happens every five years and includes Congressional review and reauthorization of all child nutrition programs, including SNAP, WIC, and the school lunch program. The Farm Bill will also be up for renewal during the administration.

Corporations have historically dominated federal policies in the U.S., and consumers and small growers have little voice in the process of deciding policies.Low-income people, particularly people of color, have even less power, and lack the choice in determining their own food and nutritional decisions. Black and hispanic low-income neighborhoods are often food deserts, meaning they lack grocery stores and accessible real food. Therefore, millions are dependent on government funded programs like SNAP and WIC.

If President Trump signs the drafted executive order titled: “Protecting Taxpayer Resources By Ensuring Our Immigration Law Promote Accountability and Responsibility", it would deny first-generation immigrants and their second-generation citizen children access to these programs. According to a recent analysis by the National Academies of Sciences, 45.3% of all immigrant-headed households with children use a food assistance program. 88% of all children living with immigrant parents are U.S. citizens. This does not account for the millions of undocumented immigrants that currently do not receive SNAP or WIC benefits.

References[edit | edit source]

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69. ^ Jump up to: ^a b Immigration, Panel on the Economic and Fiscal Consequences of; Statistics, Committee on National; Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and; Sciences, National Academies of; Engineering; Medicine, and. 3 Socioeconomic Outcomes of Immigrants | The Economic and Fiscal Consequences of Immigration | The National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/23550.