User:Draco ignoramus sophomoricus/sandbox cephalopods

Mantle length

Teuthida (squids)
Species	Maximum mantle length	Clade	References	Notes
Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni (colossal squid)	≈300 cm (estimate)		Roper & Jereb (2010c:173)	The largest complete specimen, a mature female recovered from the Ross Sea in February 2007, had a mantle length of around 2.5 m ([Anonymous], N.d.)—this being the maximum scientifically documented mantle length (Rosa et al., 2017)—and several other specimens near this size have been recorded. However, at 42.5 mm LRL, its beak is considerably smaller than the largest recovered from a sperm whale stomach (49 mm LRL; O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008; [Anonymous], N.d.). Maximum mantle lengths as great as 4 m have been estimated and reported in the past (Young, 2003; O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008). There are published claims of a very large section of gladius that would suggest a colossal squid measuring 5 m or more in mantle length (Wood, 1982:191; Bright, 1989:146).
Galiteuthis phyllura	? 265–275 cm (estimate)		Nesis (1985); Nesis (1987:274); Ellis (1998a:149); Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas (2004:65); Hoving & Robison (2017:47)	Estimate based on 40 cm long arm and 115 cm tentacle from the Sea of Okhotsk. Roper & Jereb (2010c:165) write: "this is considered a doubtful record that might refer to total length; probably the maximum mantle length is less than 400 to 500 mm".
Architeuthis dux (giant squid)	240 cm (female)		Landman et al. (2004:686); O'Shea (2006); Roper & Shea (2013:114)	Dorsal mantle length of female captured off Tasmania, Australia, reported by Landman et al. (2004:686) and cited by Roper & Shea (2013:114). Questionable records of up to 500 cm ML can be found in older literature (Roper & Jereb, 2010a:121). O'Shea & Bolstad (2008) give a maximum mantle length of 225 cm based on the examination of more than 130 specimens, as well as beaks recovered from sperm whales (which do not exceed the size of those found in the largest complete specimens). Paxton (2016a) accepts a maximum recorded ML of 279 cm, based on the Lyall Bay specimen reported by Kirk (1880:312), but this record has been called into question as the gladius of this specimen—which should approximate the mantle in length—was said to be only 190 cm long (Greshko, 2016).
Onykia robusta (robust clubhook squid)	200 cm		Norman (2000:174); Bolstad (2008:107); Okutani (2015b)	Kubodera et al. (1998) give a maximum of at least 161.5 cm ML. The largest specimen seen by Bolstad (2008:107) had a mantle length of 197 cm (USNM 816872; specimen of indeterminate sex from 51°46.9′N 177°39.7′E). Verrill (1876:237) reported a specimen with a mantle length of 232 cm (91.5 in) and a total length of 4.3 m (14 ft) (excluding the ends of the tentacles, which had been destroyed). Nesis (1987:192) likewise gave a maximum mantle length of 230 cm, but Roper & Jereb (2010i:364) wrote that "this old record might be in error", with the species commonly growing to 160 cm ML. Previously known as Moroteuthis robusta (see Bolstad, 2008; Bolstad, 2010).
Megalocranchia maxima	185 cm (female)		Kubodera & Horikawa (2005:210)	Size of female caught off Motobu Peninsula, Okinawa, Japan, identified as "Megalocranchia cf. maxima" (see Kubodera & Horikawa, 2005:223 for photograph). This species is listed under the name Megalocranchia fisheri in many older sources. Tsuchiya & Okutani (1993), Roper & Jereb (2010c:171) and Okutani (2015a) give maximum of 180 cm, and Norman (2000:158) gives the same for M. fisheri. This species may also be conspecific with Megalocranchia abyssicola (Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas, 2004:65).
Taningia danae (Dana octopus squid)	170 cm		Nesis (1982); Roper & Jereb (2010h:266)	The largest well documented specimen is a 160 cm ML mature female from the North Atlantic (Roper & Vecchione, 1993:449).
Dosidicus gigas (Humboldt squid)	150 cm		Wormuth (1976:38); Norman (2000:165); Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas (2004:54)	According to Wormuth (1976:38), specimens reaching 150 cm ML are "not uncommon" off Peru. Roper et al. (2010b:301) give a maximum mantle length of 120 cm for specimens off Chile and around 100 cm for northern populations, with a more typical mantle length of up to 50–80 cm. The review article of Nigmatullin et al. (2001)—based on c. 230 published papers on the species, in addition to other catch data—also gives a maximum mantle length of 120 cm.
Kondakovia longimana (giant warty squid)		≈150 cm (estimate; female)	Bolstad (2008:171)	Estimated size of damaged female (NMV F109447; specimen with 21 mm LRL from 63°04.72′S 62°56.02′E). O'Shea (2003b) estimated maximum mantle length as probably exceeding 115 cm. Largest complete specimen measured 108 cm ML (Lynnes & Rodhouse, 2002:1087; Roper & Jereb, 2010i:366).
Mastigoteuthis cordiformis	100 cm or more		Roper & Jereb (2010g:253)	Based on unpublished reports; largest verified ML is 70 cm (Roper & Jereb, 2010g:253).
Lepidoteuthis grimaldii (Grimaldi scaled squid)	100 cm		Roper & Jereb (2010e:240)
Thysanoteuthis rhombus (diamondback squid)	100 cm		Nesis (1987:237); Norman (2000:175); Roper et al. (1984); Roper & Jereb (2010k:385)	Commonly grows to 60 cm ML (Roper et al., 1984) and possibly reaches 130 cm ML (Roper & Jereb, 2010k:385). Both sexes are the same size.
cf. Magnapinna (bigfin squid)	≈100 cm (estimate)		Vecchione et al. (2001a:2505); Vecchione et al. (2001b)	Estimate based on specimen observed by ROV Tiburon in May 2001, north of Oahu, Hawaii (21.9°N 158.2°W / 21.9; -158.2 (Bigfin squid observed from ROV, May 2001)), at a depth of 3380 m. Its total length was estimated at 4–5 m.
Loligo forbesii (veined squid)	93.7 cm (male)		Jereb et al. (2010:44)	Maximum size of specimens from the Azores. Females from same location grow to 46.2 cm ML. Individuals from the Mediterranean Sea and eastern North Atlantic are usually 20–30 cm ML.
Asperoteuthis acanthoderma	92 cm		Kubodera & Horikawa (2005:209)	Size of specimen (undetermined sex) caught off Motobu Peninsula, Okinawa, Japan (see Kubodera & Horikawa, 2005:223 for photograph). Roper & Jereb (2010b:140) give maximum mantle length of 80 cm.
Ommastrephes bartramii (neon flying squid)	80–90 cm (female)		Roper et al. (2010b:296)	Maximum size of specimens from North Atlantic and Southern Hemisphere (where males reach 40–42 cm). Females from the North Pacific are smaller (50–60 cm ML), but males may be larger (40–45 cm ML) (Roper et al., 2010b:296). Nesis (1987:231) and Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas (2004:62) give maximum mantle length of 86 cm.
Onykia robsoni (rugose hooked squid)	88.5 cm (female)		Vecchione et al. (2011)	Size of mature female (11.1 kg total weight) caught in bottom trawl at 685–700 m depth over Chatham Rise (44°21′S 175°32′E). Roper & Jereb (2010i:363) give maximum mantle length of 75 cm. Previously known as Moroteuthis robsoni (see Bolstad, 2008; Bolstad, 2010).
Sthenoteuthis oualaniensis (purpleback flying squid)	82 cm (female)		Roper et al. (2010b:317)	Size of exceptionally large mature female of giant form, captured in the Gulf of Guinea (00°58′08″N 02°06′08″E). Males of this giant form reach 24–32 cm ML and females are more typically 36–65 cm. Medium-sized and dwarf forms of this species are also known. For more on the giant form of this species, see Snÿder (1995) and Snÿder (1998).
Megalocranchia oceanica	81 cm		Roper & Jereb (2010c:172)
Pholidoteuthis adami	78 cm		Roper & Jereb (2010j:373)
Todarodes sagittatus	75 cm		Roper et al. (2010b:323)	Size of unsexed specimen from North Atlantic, likely a female. Maximum reported mantle length for males is 64.0 cm, also from North Atlantic. More commonly this species reaches 25.0–35.0 cm ML.
Pholidoteuthis massyae	72 cm		Roper & Jereb (2010j:371)
Taonius pavo	66 cm		Roper & Jereb (2010c:159)
Sthenoteuthis pteropus (orangeback flying squid)	65 cm		Nesis (1987:237); Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas (2004:62); Roper et al. (2010b:320)	Maximum size of large form is 30–65 cm ML for females and 18.0–28.0 cm ML for males. A small, early-maturing, equatorial form is also known.
Loligo vulgaris	64 cm (male)		Jereb et al. (2010:41)	Largest individuals found off West African coast. Maximum recorded mantle length for females is 48.5 cm.
Gonatopsis japonicus	62 cm		Roper et al. (2010a:216)
Galiteuthis armata	61 cm		Roper & Jereb (2010c:164)
Cycloteuthis akimushkini	60 cm		Roper & Jereb (2010d:181)
Gonatus kamtschaticus	55 cm		Roper et al. (2010a:204)
Todarodes filippovae	54 cm (female)		Roper et al. (2010b:327)	Maximum mantle length in males is around 40 cm. Species more commonly reaches a mantle length of 20–40 cm.
Taonius belone	≈53 cm		Roper & Jereb (2010c:160)
Onykia ingens	52 cm		Roper & Jereb (2010i:359)	Previously known as Moroteuthis ingens (see Bolstad, 2008; Bolstad, 2010).
Uroteuthis edulis	50.2 cm (male)		Jereb et al. (2010:101)	Maximum recorded mantle length for females is 41.0 cm. Commercially caught specimens are typically much smaller, averaging 15–25 cm ML.
Galiteuthis glacialis	50 cm		Roper & Jereb (2010c:165)
Todarodes pacificus	50 cm		Roper et al. (2010b:329)	Commonly reaches 30 cm ML in temperate Japan, but less than 20 cm ML off Hong Kong and in the South China Sea.
Uroteuthis singhalensis	50 cm (male)		Jereb et al. (2010:113)	Maximum recorded mantle length for females is 31 cm.
Cycloteuthis sirventi	≈50 cm	Roper & Jereb (2010d:180)
Taonius borealis	≈50 cm		Roper & Jereb (2010c:160)
Octopoteuthis sicula	possibly to 50 cm		Roper & Jereb (2010h:264)	Usually reaches 20 cm ML.
Octopoda (octopuses)
Species	Maximum mantle length	Clade	References	Notes
Haliphron atlanticus (seven-arm octopus)	69 cm (female)		O'Shea (2002:1); O'Shea (2004a:9); Finn (2014a:227)	Mantle length of incomplete 2.90 m TL mature female, measured defrosted and wet, prior to fixing. Isolated beaks of comparable size to that of this specimen were recorded by Clarke (1986:247–248). The sexually dimorphic males reach a mantle length of over 10 cm (Finn, 2014a:227).
Enteroctopus dofleini (giant Pacific octopus)	at least 60 cm		Norman (2000:214); Norman et al. (2014:124)
Sepiida (cuttlefish)
Species	Maximum mantle length	Clade	References	Notes
Sepia apama (Australian giant cuttlefish)	50 cm		Reid et al. (2005:68)
Sepia latimanus (broadclub cuttlefish)	50 cm		Reid et al. (2005:92)
Sepia hierredda	<50 cm		Reid et al. (2005:88)
Sepia officinalis (European common cuttlefish)	49 cm		Reid et al. (2005:99)
Sepia pharaonis (pharaoh cuttlefish)	42 cm		Reid et al. (2005:107)
Sepia lycidas (kisslip cuttlefish)	38 cm		Reid et al. (2005:96)
Sepia ramani	37.5 cm		Reid et al. (2005:114) ||
Vampyromorphida (vampire squid) – single extant species
Species	Maximum mantle length	References	Notes
Vampyroteuthis infernalis (vampire squid)	13 cm	Nesis (1982); Norman & Finn (2014:269)
Sepiolida (bobtail squids)
Species	Maximum mantle length	References	Notes
Austrorossia antillensis	9 cm	Reid & Jereb (2005:192)
Rossia pacifica	9 cm (female)	Reid & Jereb (2005:185)	Males grow to 4.5 cm in mantle length.
Rossia macrosoma	8.5 cm	Reid & Jereb (2005:184)	More typically the mantle length is 2.0–6.0 cm.
Neorossia caroli	8.3 cm (female)	Reid & Jereb (2005:190)	Males grow to 5.1 cm in mantle length.
Spirulida (spirula) – single extant species
Species	Maximum mantle length	References	Notes
Spirula spirula (ram's horn squid)	rarely exceeds 4.5 cm	Reid (2005:211)

Maximum length

Teuthida (squids)
Species	Maximum total length	References	Notes
Architeuthis dux (giant squid)	14–15 m (female)	Roper & Shea (2013:114)	Based on a 40-year data set of more than 50 specimens, Roper & Shea (2013:114) suggest an average total length at maturity of 11 m and a "rarely encountered maximum length" of 14–15 m. Of the nearly 100 specimens examined by Roper, the largest was "46 feet (14 m) long" (Cerullo & Roper, 2012:22). O'Shea & Bolstad (2008) give a maximum total length of 13 m for females based on the examination of more than 130 specimens, measured post mortem and relaxed, as well as beaks recovered from sperm whales (which do not exceed the size of those found in the largest complete specimens). O'Shea estimated the maximum total length for males at 10 m (O'Shea, 2003a). Older records of 18 m or more were likely exaggerated by stretching of the long feeding tentacles or resulted from inadequate measurement methods such as pacing (O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008; Roper & Shea, 2013:113). Paxton (2016a) performed a statistical analysis using literature records of giant squid specimens and concluded that "squid with a conservative TL of 20 m would seem likely based on current data", but the study has been heavily criticised by experts in the field (Greshko, 2016).
Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni (colossal squid)	approaching 9–10 m (estimate)	Roper & Jereb (2010c:173)	The maximum confirmed total length for this species is 6 m (Rosa et al., 2017). Two specimens of M. hamiltoni recovered from the stomachs of sperm whales between 1956 and 1957 off the South Shetland Islands and South Orkney Islands—both initially identified as Architeuthis—reportedly measured around 10 and 12 m, respectively (Sweeney & Roper, 2001:56; see Korabelnikov, 1959:103 and Yukhov, 1974:62). Estimated maximum lengths as great as 12–14 m have appeared in the popular literature (see Anderton, 2007).
cf. Magnapinna (bigfin squid)	≈7 m (estimate)	Vecchione et al. (2001a:2505); Vecchione et al. (2001b); Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas (2004:67); Roper & Jereb (2010f:247)	Estimate based on specimen observed by commercial ROV operated from the oil-drilling ship Millennium Explorer in January 2000, Mississippi Canyon, Gulf of Mexico (28°37′N 88°0′W), at a depth of 2195 m (Vecchione et al., 2001b). Bolstad (2003) gives an estimate of at least 8 m TL for the largest observed specimen.
Asperoteuthis acanthoderma	5.5 m (+)	Tsuchiya & Okutani (1993)	Total length of immature specimen measuring 0.45 m ML. Much larger specimens of up to 92 cm ML are known (see Kubodera & Horikawa, 2005:223 for photograph).
Onykia robusta (robust clubhook squid)	4.3 m (14 ft) (+)	Verrill (1876:237)	Total length of specimen missing ends of tentacles, with a mantle length of 2.32 m (91.5 in) according to Verrill (1876:237). Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas (2004:66) give maximum total length of 4–6 m. Previously known as Moroteuthis robusta (see Bolstad, 2008; Bolstad, 2010).
Galiteuthis phyllura	? over 4 m (estimate)	Nesis (1985); Ellis (1998a:149); Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas (2004:65)	Estimate based on 0.40 m long arm and 1.15 m tentacle from the Sea of Okhotsk. Roper & Jereb (2010c:165) cast doubt on the validity of this record.
Dosidicus gigas (Humboldt squid)	possibly up to 3.7 m (12 ft)	Clarke (1966:117); Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas (2004:59)	Specimens from the northern hemisphere are much smaller, with those off the Californian coast reaching total lengths of less than 1.7 m (Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas, 2004:59). Roper et al. (2010b:301) give maximum total length of close to 2.5 m for specimens off Chile.
Megalocranchia maxima	2.7 m (+) (female)	Young & Mangold (2010)	Total length of 1.65 m ML female taken off Hawaii (see Young & Mangold, 2010 for photograph). Larger specimens of up to 1.85 m ML have been recorded, and these clearly exceed 2.7 m TL (see Kubodera & Horikawa, 2005:223 for photograph).
Taningia danae (Dana octopus squid)	2.3 m (female)	Roper & Vecchione (1993:444)	Total length of mature female measuring 160 cm in mantle length, taken from frozen specimen.
Kondakovia longimana (giant warty squid)	2.25 m (+)	Lynnes & Rodhouse (2002:1087)	Size of largest complete specimen (1.08 m ML), found floating at surface off South Orkney Islands (see also Carrington, 2000). Much larger specimens up to an estimated 1.5 m ML are known (Bolstad, 2008:171).
Ommastrephes bartramii (neon flying squid)	2 m	Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas (2004:62)
Octopoda (octopuses)
Species	Maximum total length	References	Notes
Enteroctopus dofleini (giant Pacific octopus)	>6.1 m	Cosgrove (1987)	Norman et al. (2014:124) give the maximum total length as "more than 3 m". Questionable length records of up to 9.8 m can be found in the literature (see High, 1976:18).
Cirrina gen. et sp. indet.	over 4 m (estimate)	Voss (1988); Vecchione et al. (2008)	Estimate based on photographic record; finned octopods are known with certainty to reach at least 1.7 m in total length (Collins et al., 2001).
Haliphron atlanticus (seven-arm octopus)	4 m (estimate; female)	O'Shea (2004a:9); Finn (2014a:227)	Estimate based on incomplete 2.90 m mature female, measured defrosted and wet, prior to fixing. Isolated beaks of comparable size to that of this specimen were recorded by Clarke (1986:247–248). Males are estimated to reach a total length of 21 cm (Finn, 2014a:227) and perhaps as much as 30 cm (Norman et al., 2002:733).
Vampyromorphida (vampire squid) – single extant species
Species	Maximum total length	References	Notes
Vampyroteuthis infernalis (vampire squid)	≈30 cm	Norman & Finn (2014:269)

Mass

Teuthida (squids)
Species	Maximum mass	References	Notes
Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni (colossal squid)	495 kg (female)	[Anonymous] (N.d.); Guerra & Segonzac (2014:65); Rosa et al. (2017)	Weight of mature female specimen caught in February 2007, measured after thawing. This specimen was originally estimated to weigh 450 kg (Anderton, 2007). Several other specimens with weights in the hundreds of kilograms have been recorded. Beaks recovered from sperm whale stomachs indicate the existence of even larger specimens, perhaps weighing as much as 600–700 kg ([Anonymous], N.d.).
Architeuthis dux (giant squid)	275 kg (female)	O'Shea (2003a); Grist & Jackson (2007:386); Guerra & Segonzac (2014:65)	Maximum size based on the examination of some 105 specimens by O'Shea (2003a), as well as beaks recovered from sperm whales (which do not exceed the size of those found in the largest complete specimens). Maximum weight for males has been estimated at 150 kg (O'Shea, 2003a; see also Grist & Jackson, 2007:386), though heavier specimens have occasionally been reported (see Deagle et al., 2005 for 190 kg specimen, Hofilena, 2014 for 163 kg specimen). Roper & Jereb (2010a:121) give a maximum weight of up to 500 kg, and "possibly greater". Discredited weights of as much as a tonne or more are not uncommon in older literature (O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008).
Taningia danae (Dana octopus squid)	161.4 kg (female)	Roper & Jereb (2010h:266)	Weight of 160 cm ML mature female from North Atlantic. Specimen weighed prior to freezing (Roper & Vecchione, 1993:444). According to Roper & Jereb (2010h:266), the previously reported maximum weight of 61.4 kg (based on the same specimen) stems from a typographical error in the original paper of Roper & Vecchione (1993). This lower value was repeated by a number of subsequent authors, including Santos et al. (2001:355) and Kubodera et al. (2006:1029).
Onykia robusta (robust clubhook squid)	50 kg	Roper et al. (1984); Roper & Jereb (2010i:364); Guerra & Segonzac (2014:65); Okutani (2015b)	Previously known as Moroteuthis robusta (see Bolstad, 2008; Bolstad, 2010).
Dosidicus gigas (Humboldt squid)	50 kg	Nigmatullin et al. (2001:10); Roper et al. (2010b:301); [Anonymous] (N.d.)	Commonly reaches a maximum weight of around 20–30 kg (Roper et al., 2010b:301). In their introduction to the family Ommastrephidae, Roper et al. (2010b:269) give a maximum weight of 55–65 kg, but this is contradicted later in the same work by the 50 kg figure in the main species account. Guerra & Segonzac (2014:65) give a maximum weight of 90 kg.
Kondakovia longimana (giant warty squid)	50 kg (estimate)	Guerra & Segonzac (2014:65)	Largest complete specimen, found floating at surface off South Orkney Islands, had a wet weight of 29 kg and a mantle length of 108 cm (Lynnes & Rodhouse, 2002:1087; see also Carrington, 2000), but a damaged female specimen with an estimated mantle length of around 150 cm is known (Bolstad, 2008:171).
Thysanoteuthis rhombus (diamondback squid)	30 kg	Miyahara et al. (2006); Roper & Jereb (2010k:385)	Probably exceeds the recorded mass of 30 kg according to Roper & Jereb (2010k:385).
Ommastrephes bartramii (neon flying squid)	20–25 kg (female)	Roper et al. (2010b:296)	Maximum size of specimens from North Atlantic and Southern Hemisphere (where males reach 2–2.2 kg). Females from the North Pacific are smaller (6 kg), but males may be larger (2–2.9 kg) (Roper et al., 2010b:296).
Megalocranchia maxima	23.9 kg (52.7 lb) (+)	[Anonymous] (2015b); Mosendz (2015)	Mass of specimen found floating dead off Hawaii, estimated to measure at least 2.1 m (7 ft) TL, tentatively identified as Megalocranchia fisheri. Larger specimens reaching and even exceeding 2.7 m TL have been recorded, though were apparently not weighed (see Kubodera & Horikawa, 2005:223; Young & Mangold, 2010).
Onykia robsoni (rugose hooked squid)	11.1 kg (female)	Vecchione et al. (2011)	Weight of mature female (88.5 cm ML) caught in bottom trawl at 685–700 m depth over Chatham Rise (44°21′S 175°32′E). Previously known as Moroteuthis robsoni (see Bolstad, 2008; Bolstad, 2010).
Sthenoteuthis oualaniensis (purpleback flying squid)	8.9 kg	Zuyev et al. (2002:1027)	Roper et al. (2010b:315) reported maximum weight of 8.5 kg.
Loligo forbesii (veined squid)	8.3 kg (male)	Jereb et al. (2010:44)	Maximum weight of specimens from the Azores. Females from the same location weigh only up to 2.2 kg.
Sthenoteuthis pteropus (orangeback flying squid)	7 kg	Zuyev et al. (2002:1027); Roper et al. (2010b:319)
Octopoda (octopuses)
Species	Maximum mass	References	Notes
Enteroctopus dofleini (giant Pacific octopus)	? >180 kg	Norman et al. (2014:124)	Cosgrove (1987) and Cosgrove & McDaniel (2009:69) gave a maximum confirmed weight of 71 kg for a live specimen collected in the mid-1960s (McClain et al., 2015). There exists a dubious record of a 272 kg specimen which is sometimes cited as the largest known (see High, 1976:18; Hochberg & Fields, 1980:436; Lewy, 2002:65), although it was never actually collected and weighed (Newman, 1994:66; McClain et al., 2015). Norman et al. (2014:124) accept a maximum weight of at least 180 kg, which approximates the 182.3 kg reported for a specimen caught off Santa Barbara, California, in 1945, of which photographic evidence survives (Cosgrove & McDaniel, 2009:67–69). No specimens approaching this size have been reported since the middle of the 20th century, with recent specimens very rarely exceeding 50 kg (Cosgrove & McDaniel, 2009:71). It is possible that the maximum size of the species has decreased over this period, perhaps due to bioaccumulation of toxicants (Anderson, 2003:3; Cosgrove & McDaniel, 2009:71).
Haliphron atlanticus (seven-arm octopus)	75 kg (estimate; female)	O'Shea (2004a:9)	Estimate based on incomplete 61.0 kg mature female, measured defrosted and wet, prior to fixing. Isolated beaks of comparable size to that of the present specimen were recorded by Clarke (1986:247–248).
Sepiida (cuttlefish)
Species	Maximum mass	References	Notes
Sepia apama (Australian giant cuttlefish)	>10.5 kg	Reid et al. (2005:68)
Sepia latimanus (broadclub cuttlefish)	10 kg	Reid et al. (2005:92)
Sepia hierredda	>7.5 kg	Reid et al. (2005:88)
Sepia lycidas (kisslip cuttlefish)	5 kg	Reid et al. (2005:96)
Sepia pharaonis (pharaoh cuttlefish)	5 kg	Reid et al. (2005:107)
Sepia officinalis (European common cuttlefish)	4 kg	Reid et al. (2005:99)

Shell diameter

Octopoda (octopuses) – all extant Argonauta species listed
Species	Maximum shell diameter	References	Notes
Argonauta argo (greater argonaut)	300.0 mm	Pisor (2008:22); Barbier et al. (N.d.)	Pisor (2008:22) listed this size for a specimen from Australia (registered in 1991; in collection of SIO). Barbier et al. (N.d.) list exactly the same size for a specimen from the Philippines (year given as 1985; in private collection of Beals Marty). For a discussion of maximum shell size in this species, see Finn (2013:199). The largest literature record (and the only one to exceed the official world record size) appears to be the rough upper limit of 12 in (304.8 mm) given by Webb (1945:13) for the species as a whole (Finn, 2013:199). Under Argonauta cygnus, Pisor (2008:22) listed a 220.0 mm record for a specimen from western Mexico (acquired in 1995; in collection of SIO). The same specimen was previously listed under Argonauta pacificus (as pacifica) by Pisor (2005:12). Both A. cygnus and A. pacificus are considered synonyms of A. argo by Finn (2013) and Finn (2014b).
Argonauta nodosus (knobbed argonaut)	292.0 mm	Pisor (2008:22)	Size of a specimen from South Australia (registered in 1977; in collection of AMNH). Barbier et al. (N.d.) list a record of 204.0 mm for a specimen from the "Tasmania area", Australia (year given as 2000; in private collection of B. Henke). For a discussion of maximum shell size in this species, see Finn (2013:167); a number of unconfirmed reports put the maximum size beyond 300 mm.
Argonauta hians (muddy argonaut)	121.61 mm	Barbier et al. (N.d.)	Size of a specimen from the Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea (year given as 1995; in private collection of Simon Weigmann). Pisor (2008:22) listed a record of 112.6 mm for a specimen from the Philippines (registered in 1988; in private collection of Victor Dan). For a discussion of maximum shell size in this species, see Finn (2013:186); none of the records discussed therein exceed the current world record specimen.
Argonauta boettgeri	108.03 mm	Barbier et al. (N.d.)	Size of a specimen taken from the China Sea off Zhejiang Province by a local fisherman (year given as 2005; in private collection of Simon Weigmann). Pisor (2008:22) listed a record of 102.2 mm for a specimen from the Philippines (collected in 2005; in collection of Havelet Marine). Pisor (2005:12) listed a record of 67.0 mm for a specimen from Mozambique, which is the locus classicus of this species (registered in 2003; in private collection of Pete Stimpson).
Argonauta cornutus	98.7 mm	Barbier et al. (N.d.)	Size of a specimen from western Mexico (year given as 1985; in collection of W. D. Schroeder). Pisor (2008:22) listed possibly the same specimen, also from western Mexico, at 98.6 mm (collected in 1999; in private collection of W. D. Schroeder).
Argonauta nouryi	95.5 mm	Pisor (2008:22); Barbier et al. (N.d.)	Size of a specimen from California (collected in 1992; in collection of Havelet Marine). For a discussion of maximum shell size in this species, see Finn (2013:207); none of the records discussed therein exceed the current world record specimen (when including A. cornutus, which Finn treats as a synonym of A. nouryi).
Nautilida (nautiluses) – all extant species listed
Species	Maximum shell diameter	References	Notes
Nautilus pompilius pompilius (emperor nautilus)	254.0 mm	Pisor (2008:121); Barbier et al. (N.d.)	Size of a specimen from Indonesia (registered in 2003; in private collection of Pete Stimpson), listed as N. p. pompilius. Hutsell et al. (1997:48) listed a 253.0 mm specimen, also from Indonesia (collected in 1983; in private collection of Cecelia Abbott). Harasewych & Moretzsohn (2010:632) give a maximum shell diameter of 268 mm for this species, but this is based on an erroneous record. Under N. repertus (which is treated here in synonymy with N. p. pompilius; Jereb (2005:53) considered it a "questionable species"), Pisor (2005:93) listed a 230.0 mm record for a specimen from Indonesia (registered in 2000; in private collection of Pete Stimpson), Pisor (2008) did not include the taxon at all, while Barbier et al. (N.d.) list a record of 242.07 mm for a specimen from India (no year given; in private collection of Simon Weigmann). The largest albinistic N. p. pompilius is listed by Barbier et al. (N.d.) as a 175.0 mm specimen trawled at 400 m depth off Zamboanga in the Philippines (year given as 2013; in collection of Havelet Marine).
Nautilus stenomphalus (white-patch nautilus)	239.39 mm	Barbier et al. (N.d.)	Size of a specimen from Timor Island, Indonesia (year given as 2009; in private collection of Simon Weigmann). Under N. pompilius f. stenomphalus, Pisor (2008:121) listed a maximum shell diameter of 221.0 mm for a specimen from the Philippines (no year given; in collection of Havelet Marine).
Nautilus belauensis (Palau nautilus)	239 mm	Grulke (2016:76)	Grulke (2016:76) gives an adult shell size range of 180–239 mm, and a mean adult shell diameter of 200 mm. Jereb (2005:54) gives 226 mm as the maximum size for the species, with no reference to a particular specimen. Pisor (2008:121) and Barbier et al. (N.d.) list a record of 221.0 mm for a specimen from Babeldaob, Palau (year given as 1980; in collection of Havelet Marine).
Nautilus pompilius suluensis	220.0 mm	Barbier et al. (N.d.)	Size of a specimen from the Philippines (year given as 2000; in private collection of Pete Stimpson). Pisor (2008:121) listed a maximum shell diameter of 148.0 mm for a specimen from the Philippines (registered in 2000; in private collection of Pete Stimpson). N. p. suluensis is a dwarf form from the Sulu Sea that has the smallest mean shell diameter of all known extant nautilus populations, at 115.6 mm (Dunstan et al., 2011).
Allonautilus scrobiculatus (crusty nautilus)	215.0 mm	Pisor (2005:93)	Size of a specimen from the Philippines (registered in 2000; in private collection of Pete Stimpson), listed as Nautilus scrobiculatus. Pisor (2008) did not include this species at all. Barbier et al. (N.d.) list a record of 214.0 mm for a specimen from Indonesia (year given as 2013; in private collection of Pete Stimpson).
Nautilus macromphalus (bellybutton nautilus)	180.62 mm	Barbier et al. (N.d.)	Size of a specimen from New Caledonia (year given as 2008; in private collection of Simon Weigmann). Pisor (2008:121) listed a maximum shell diameter of 180.0 mm for a specimen from New Caledonia (collected in 1995; in private collection of Kent Trego).
Allonautilus perforatus	around 180 mm	Jereb (2005:55); Grulke (2016:83)	Given as the maximum size for the species, with no reference to a particular specimen. Jereb (2005:55) considered A. perforatus a "[v]ery rare form of questionable validity".
Spirulida (spirula) – single extant species
Species	Maximum shell diameter	References	Notes
Spirula spirula (ram's horn squid)	28.8 mm	[Anonymous] (2003c)	Size of a specimen from Samar Island, the Philippines (collected in 2003). Pisor (2008:139) and Barbier et al. (N.d.) list a record of 27.2 mm for a specimen from Phuket Island, Thailand (collected c. 2000; in collection of Havelet Marine; see [Anonymous], 2006 for online record).

Extinct taxa

The largest ammonite ever found, a specimen of Parapuzosia seppenradensis measuring 1.742 m (5.72 ft) in diameter. The fossil pictured is the original held at the Westfälisches Museum für Naturkunde in Münster, but many casts exist.

The earliest discovered fossil of P. seppenradensis, as it appeared at the Westphalian Museum of Natural History in 1895. A human skeleton provided scale, while an oil painted background reconstructed the living chamber and animal itself, together with assorted Cretaceous sealife.

The largest ammonite ever found in Bulgaria: a 1.44 m Parapuzosia sp. collected near Shumen in 1932. It is on display at the National Museum of Natural History in Sofia.

Giant fossil of Pachydesmoceras pachydiscoide from Mikasa, Hokkaido, Japan, exhibited at the National Museum of Nature and Science in Tokyo

Titanites giganteus at the Natural History Museum in London

The uncoiled shell of Baculites grandis, a species of heteromorph ammonite

Fossilised guards of the Jurassic belemnites Megateuthis gigantea (top two) and Megateuthis aalensis

Fossilised rostrum of Acroteuthis subquadrata

Endoceras orthocones

Artist's reconstruction of Orthoceras sp., an orthocerid of the Middle Ordovician

Ammonoidea (ammonoids)
Species	Maximum shell diameter (length for heteromorphs)	References	Notes
Parapuzosia seppenradensis	2–3.5 m (estimate)	Landois (1895:100); Landois (1898:27); Teichert & Kummel (1960:6); Summesberger (1979:128); Holland (1987:6); Kennedy & Kaplan (1995:21); Lewy (2002:66); frim et al. (2021)	Widely recognised as the largest ammonite specimen ever found (Payne et al., 2009:27; Grulke, 2014:124). Discovered in 1895 in a quarry in Seppenrade, Coesfeld, Germany, the original is on display at the Westfälisches Museum für Naturkunde in Münster. Estimate based on lectotype measuring 1.742 m in diameter (Kennedy & Kaplan, 1995:21) with an incomplete living chamber, assuming living chamber took up one-fourth of the outer whorl. Teichert & Kummel (1960:6) suggested an even larger shell diameter of around 3.5 m for this specimen, assuming the body chamber extended for three-fourths to one full whorl. Landois (1898:27) estimated the total live weight at 1456 kg, of which the shell would constitute 705 kg. The fossil itself weighs around 3.5 tonnes (Beer, 2015). A smaller specimen of 1.36 m was found in the same quarry some years earlier (Beer, 2015). In 1971 a portion of an ammonite possibly surpassing the Seppenrade specimen was reportedly found in a brickyard in Bottrop, western Germany (Beer, 2015). In 2021, diameter of 2 m is estimated for the largest specimen.
Parapuzosia bradyi	>1.8 m (estimate)	Larson et al. (1997:44); Lewy (2002:66)	Largest known North American ammonite. Estimate based on incomplete specimen measuring 1.37 m in diameter (missing at least half a whorl of the body chamber).
Peltoceratinae gen. et sp. indet.	1.78 m (estimate)	Poulton (1989)	Estimate based on small portion of outer whorl measuring 1.2 m along the venter and subtending a chord of 1.13 m. The estimate is based on the ultimate whorl height/diameter ratio of "Titanites" occidentalis (about 35%), and assumes a constant rate of expansion. More crude calculations give a circular diameter of 2–2.4 m (best fit of the specimen's outline to a curve yields 2.16 m estimate).
Eopachydiscus sp.	1.67 m	Grulke (2014:125)	This specimen, from the Albian Duck Creek Formation of Texas, has been exhibited at the Tucson Fossil Show and in a New York auction.
Pachydesmoceras cf. pachydiscoide	1.65 m (estimate)	Kin & Niedźwiedzki (2012:19)	Estimate based on 0.98 m diameter specimen representing an apparently complete phragmocone (previously referred to Lewesiceras peramplum or Parapuzosia). A more complete and therefore larger specimen (1.18 m diameter) consisting of a complete phragmocone and near-complete body chamber is also known (Kin & Niedźwiedzki, 2012:17).
Lytoceras taharoaense	1.5 m	Stevens (1978a:3); Stevens (1978b:2); Stevens (1979a:33); Stevens (1979b:6); Stevens (1979c:166); Stevens (1985:153); Grulke (2014:126)	Size based on essentially complete shell with only some damage to the aperture.
Mesopuzosia mobergi	<1.5 m	Kin & Niedźwiedzki (2012:19)
Parapuzosia austeni	<1.5 m	Kin & Niedźwiedzki (2012:19)	Puzosia mayoriana is a synonym.
Moutoniceras sp.	1.47 m [heteromorph]	Grulke (2014:126)	In private collection of Wolfgang Grulke, according to whom it is likely the largest heteromorph ammonite ever found (Grulke, 2014:126). Originating from Morocco it is displayed in part of the original rock matrix with sympatric Gassendiceras heteromorphs. Its unrolled shell length would have exceeded 3 m (Grulke, 2014:126). A specimen claimed to be very slightly larger at 1.48 m was auctioned in September 2015 ([Anonymous], 2015a).
Parapuzosia bosei	1.45 m	Scott & Moore (1928:276); Lewy (2002:66)	From the Austin Chalk of the Rio Grande region, Texas. The largest known specimen was reported by Scott & Moore (1928:273) to be 4 ft 9 in (1.45 m) in diameter and "impossible to extract from its matrix". The authors found "[m]any others only slightly smaller", of which three were collected in 1928 and deposited at Texas Christian University (Scott & Moore, 1928:273–274).
Parapuzosia americana	1.37 m (estimate)	Scott & Moore (1928:276)	From the Austin Chalk of the Rio Grande region, Texas.
"Titanites" occidentalis	1.37 m	Frebold (1957:66); Westermann (1966)	Size based on specimen consisting of an imprint and part of the last whorl preserved as an internal mould.
Diplomoceras maximum	>1 m [heteromorph]	Olivero & Zinsmeister (1989)
Tropaeum imperator	almost 1 m	Grulke (2014:126)	Largest ammonite known from Australia. Grulke (2014:126) writes: "No exact size is available but it could be almost 1 m across".
Belemnoidea (belemnoids)
Species	Maximum rostrum measurements	References	Notes
Megateuthis sp.	0.7 m TL (Dvms: 30 mm; Dvma: 50 mm)	Schlegelmilch (1998:1); Weis & Mariotti (2007:166); Iba et al. (2015:23–24)	Megateuthis elliptica is "the longest belemnite species known", with rostra from the Humphriesianum Zone in Rumelange and Luxembourg reaching 60–70 cm (Weis & Mariotti, 2007:166). The whole animal is estimated to have been 3–5 m long (Eyden, 2003a).
Belemnitina gen. et sp. indet.	? TL (Dvms: 30 mm; Dvma: ?)	Iba et al. (2015:23)	Known from a single incomplete rostrum (TCSM-J1-0001) from the Pliensbachian Teradani Formation in Teradani, Toyama Prefecture, Japan. The specimen is missing the apical and alveolar regions and comprises only the middle (stem) region of the rostrum. It measures 45 mm in total length by 30 mm and 25 mm across at the anterior and posterior ends, respectively. Iba et al. (2015:23) wrote: "In the Belemnitina, the diameter of the alveolar region is generally larger than those of the apical and stem regions. Thus maximum rostrum diameter of the Teradani specimen is estimated to reach much more than 30 mm."
Acroteuthis sp.	? TL (Dvms: 39 mm; Dvma: 42 mm)	Iba et al. (2015:23)	One of "the largest belemnites ever observed", with a rostrum comparable to that of the indeterminate belemnitinid from Teradani.
Pachyteuthis sp.	? TL (Dvms: 39 mm; Dvma: 40 mm)	Iba et al. (2015:23)	One of "the largest belemnites ever observed", with a rostrum comparable to that of the indeterminate belemnitinid from Teradani.
Belemnitina gen. et sp. indet.	? TL (Dvms: ?; Dvma: >33 mm)	Iba et al. (2015:23)	From the Hettangian Niranohama Formation of northeastern Japan. One of "the largest belemnites ever observed", with a rostrum comparable to but likely slightly smaller than that of the indeterminate belemnitinid from Teradani.
Nautiloidea (nautiloids)
Species	Maximum shell length	References	Notes
Endoceras giganteum	8.15 m (estimate)	Teichert & Kummel (1960:5); Holland (1987:6)	Estimate based on incomplete 3-metre-long shell deposited at the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, assuming body chamber-to-phragmocone ratio of 1:2. Teichert & Kummel (1960:2) wrote that this was likely "the largest fragment of an endoceroid cephalopod on display anywhere in the world". The specimen is missing portions of the shell at both ends and it is uncertain whether the specimen includes part of the body chamber (around 50 cm if so) or is entirely phragmocone. It has an adoral diameter of 28 cm, gradually tapering to an adapical diameter of 12 cm. The estimated length of the shell with a complete adapical portion, but not accounting for the unpreserved adoral portion, is 5.8 m. The body chamber alone was estimated to be 2.65 m long (Teichert & Kummel, 1960:5). Klug et al. (2015:270) estimated the total length of the complete shell at 5.733 m, with a volume of 158.6 litres. From the Katian of New York (Klug et al., 2015:270). The published literature includes unconfirmed reports of even larger endocerids.
Cameroceras sp.	6 m	Frey (1995:73)	Given as maximum size for genus as a whole, although Frey (1995) support theory that some large specimens of Endoceras belong to Cameroceras instead.
Endoceras (Cameroceras) proteiforme	3.0–4.6 m (10–15 ft)	Clarke (1897:778); Teichert & Kummel (1960:1)	Size based on "entire shells" (Clarke, 1897:778). Described as Endoceras species, although Frey (1995) considered as Cameroceras.
Rayonnoceras solidiforme	2.8 m (estimate)	Klug et al. (2015:270)	From the Visean of Arkansas. Shell volume estimated at 62.5 litres.
Deiroceras hollardi	2.6 m (estimate)	Klug et al. (2015:270)	From the early Emsian of "Jebel Mdouar". Shell volume estimated at 68.3 litres.
Actinocerida gen. et sp. indet.	1.911 m (estimate)	Klug et al. (2015:270)	From the Llandovery of Gotland. Shell volume estimated at 8.9 litres.
Orthocerida gen. et sp. indet.	1.783 m (estimate)	Klug et al. (2015:270)	From the Ludlow of Gotland. Shell volume estimated at 4.1 litres.
Ormoceras TUG 1308-1	1.72 m (estimate)	Klug et al. (2015:270)	From the Sandbian of Estonia. Shell volume estimated at 2.7 litres.
Ormoceras giganteum MB.C.11940	1.71 m (estimate)	Klug et al. (2015:270)	From the Darriwilian. Shell volume estimated at 2.7 litres.
Lambeoceras lambii	1.405 m (estimate)	Leith (1942:130); Teichert & Kummel (1960:4)	Estimate based on incomplete 1.155 m long shell.
Orthoceras regarium	1.39 m (estimate)	Klug et al. (2015:270)	From the Wenlock of Joachimsthal. Shell volume estimated at 5.1 litres.
Temperoceras aequinudum	1.333 m (estimate)	Klug et al. (2015:270)	From the Lochkovian of "Ouidane Chebbi". Shell volume estimated at 9.2 litres.
Zeravshanoceras priscum	1.299 m (estimate)	Klug et al. (2015:270)	From the Eifelian. Shell volume estimated at 1.6 litres.
Ordogeisonoceras amplicameratum	>1.25 m	Frey (1995:40)	Shell diameter up to 10.5 cm. Originally described as Orthoceras amplicameratum. Orthoceras ludlowense is considered a synonym.
Cameroceras hennepini	<1.2 m (4 ft) (estimate)	Clarke (1897:779)	Size estimate based on "the most complete of the fragments which represent it".
Actinoceras vaughanianum	1.198 m (estimate)	Klug et al. (2015:270)	From the Serpukhovian of Oklahoma. Shell volume estimated at 8.7 litres.
Polygrammoceras? cf. P. sp. A	1.13 m (estimate)	Frey (1995:69)	Estimate based on a "single, very large fragment of a phragmocone". Shell diameter to 9.0 cm.
Plagiostomoceras sp.	1.1 m (estimate)	Klug et al. (2015:270)	From the Givetian of Onondaga, New York. Shell volume estimated at 0.0052 litres.
Endoceras decorahense	1.06 m (estimate; phragmocone only)	Miller & Kummel (1944); Teichert & Kummel (1960:2)	Size estimate based on two portions of an internal mould of the phragmocone, measuring 62.5 cm and 32 cm, with an estimated missing middle section of 11.5 cm.
Proterovaginoceras incognitum	1 m (estimate)	Klug et al. (2015:270)	From the Dapingian of Jämtland, Sweden. Shell volume estimated at 0.8 litres.
Teuthida (squids)
Species	Maximum mantle length	References	Notes
Yezoteuthis giganteus	≈1.7 m (estimate)	Tanabe et al. (2006:142)	Size estimate based on preserved upper jaw measuring 97.0 mm in maximum length, similar to that of the largest giant squid (Architeuthis dux). Tanabe et al. (2006:143) wrote that this species "appears to be the largest fossil coleoid ever described".
Boreopeltis soniae	1.3 m+ (estimate)	Eyden (2003b)	Size based on 1.3 m gladius from Queensland, Australia. A second gladius measuring more than a metre and showing possible evidence of predation by Kronosaurus is also known (Eyden, 2003b).
Teudopseina
Species	Maximum mantle length	References	Notes
Enchoteuthis melanae	up to 2 m (estimate)	Eyden (2003b); Fuchs et al. (2020)	Total length estimated to be up to 3 m. Tusoteuthis longa is likely to be invalid, and largest specimen should belongs to E. melanae.