User:Donald Trung/Sangpyeong Tongbo (상평통보, 常平通寶) expansion (late 2019)
_Treasury_Department_Mint_(%E6%88%B6)_-_Cropped.png)
This page serves as "the editing history" of the English Wikipedia article Korean mun and is preserved for attribution.
Published. --Donald Trung (talk) 11:25, 1 October 2019 (UTC) .
Mint marks
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Other marks
[edit][32] Sed ut perspiciatis, unde omnis iste natus error sit voluptatem accusantium doloremque laudantium, totam rem aperiam eaque ipsa, quae ab illo inventore veritatis et quasi architecto beatae vitae dicta sunt, explicabo. Nemo enim ipsam voluptatem, quia voluptas sit, aspernatur aut odit aut fugit, sed quia consequuntur magni dolores eos, qui ratione voluptatem sequi nesciunt, neque porro quisquam est, qui dolorem ipsum, quia dolor sit amet consectetur adipisci[ng]velit, sed quia non-numquam [do] eius modi tempora inci[di]dunt, ut labore et dolore magnam aliquam quaerat voluptatem. Ut enim ad minima veniam, quis nostrum[d] exercitationem ullam corporis suscipitlaboriosam, nisi ut aliquid ex ea commodi consequatur? Quis autem vel eum iure reprehenderit, qui inea voluptate velit esse, quam nihil molestiae consequatur, vel illum, qui dolorem eum fugiat, quo voluptas nulla pariatur?
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Other symbols, numbers, and special characters used on Sangpyeong Tongbo cash coins
[edit]Numbers, Stars, Suns, and Man
[edit]In the year 1742 special characters began appearing on Sangpyeong Tongbo cash coins, many of these special characters were used to indicate which furnace had been used to produce them or to which "series" they belonged.[1] The series number may be to the left, right or bottom of the center hole. The furnace designator may be either a numeral or a character from the Thousand Character Classic.[2]
While most of these were Hanja characters, some also had dots, circles, crescents, and horizontal lines which were used to represent things like the stars, the sun, the moon, and men.[1]
| Symbol | Meaning | Date of introduction | Image |
|---|---|---|---|
| "Star" (dot) | Number "2" (二) | 1742 | |
| "Sun" (circle) | Number "3" (三) | 1742 | |
| "Moon" (crescent) | Number "8" (八) | 1742 | |
| "Man" (vertical line) | Number "2" (二) | 1742 |
Thousand Character Classic
[edit]Some Sangpyeong Tongbo cash coins contained characters from the Thousand Character Classic (Ch'ŏnjamun) to determine by which furnace they were cast, the Thousand Character Classic was used in the far east for teaching Chinese characters and was a large poem which consisted of 250 phrases with each one of these phrases being only composed 4 Hanja characters.[3][1] The entire Thousand Character Classic is composed of 1000 Chinese characters and no point is a single character repeated.[4][1]
From the year 1742 the first 44 characters of the Thousand Character Classic began being used on some Sangpyeong Tongbo cash coins to indicate furnace number, while some Sangpyeong Tongbo cash coins used Chinese numerals specifically for this purpose, others used this system because of the non-repetitive nature of the Thousand Character Classic it is often used as a numbering system for the numbers 1 to 1000.[1] The characters of the Thousand Character Classic were usually placed at the bottom (often right below the square centre hole) on the reverse side of the Sangpyeong Tongbo cash coins.[1]
| Character (Hanja) |
Character (Hangul) |
Date of introduction | Image |
|---|---|---|---|
| 天 | 천 | 1742 | |
| 地 | 지 | 1742 | |
| 玄 | 현 | 1742 | |
| 黄 | 황 | 1742 | |
| 宇 | 우 | 1742 | |
| 宙 | 주 | 1742 | |
| 洪 | 홍 | 1742 | |
| 荒 | 황 | 1742 | |
| 日 | 일 | 1742 | |
| 月 | 월 | 1742 | |
| 盈 | 영 | 1742 | |
| 昃 | 측 | 1742 | |
| 辰 | 신 / 진 | 1742 | |
| 宿 | 수 / 숙 | 1742 | |
| 列 | 렬 / 열 | 1742 | |
| 張 | 장 | 1742 | |
| 寒 | 한 | 1742 | |
| 来 | 래 | 1742 | |
| 暑 | 서 | 1742 | |
| 往 | 왕 | 1742 | |
| 秋 | 추 | 1742 | |
| 收 | 수 | 1742 | |
| 冬 | 동 | 1742 | |
| 藏 | 장 | 1742 | |
| 閏 | 윤 | 1742 | |
| 餘 | 여 | 1742 | |
| 成 | 성 | 1742 | |
| 歲 | 세 | 1742 | |
| 律 | 률 / 율 | 1742 | |
| 吕 | 려 | 1742 | |
| 調 | 조 / 주 | 1742 | |
| 陽 | 양 | 1742 | |
| 雲 | 운 | 1742 | |
| 騰 | 등 | 1742 | |
| 致 | 치 | 1742 | |
| 雨 | 우 | 1742 | |
| 露 | 노 / 로 | 1742 | |
| 結 | 결 | 1742 | |
| 為 | 위 | 1742 | |
| 霜 | 상 | 1742 | |
| 金 | 금 / 김 | 1742 | |
| 生 | 생 | 1742 | _Military_Training_Command_Mint_(%E8%A8%93)_16.jpg){kind=small}
|
| 麗 | 려 / 여 | 1742 | |
| 水 | 수 | 1742 |
The Five Elements
[edit]Some Sangpyeong Tongbo cash coins used the five elements (오행)[5] to indicate furnace numbers or "series" number.[6][1]
| Character (Hanja) |
Character (Hangul) |
Korean name | English | Year of introduction | Image |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 金 | 금 | Kum | Metal | 1752 | _Military_Training_Command_Mint_(%E8%A8%93)_10.jpg){kind=small}
|
| 木 | 목 | Mok | Wood | 1752 | |
| 水 | 수 | Su | Water | 1752 | |
| 火 | 화 | Hwa | Fire | 1752 | |
| 土 | 토 | T'o | Earth | 1752 | _Military_Training_Command_Mint_(%E8%A8%93)_14.jpg){kind=small}
|
The Ten Celestial Stems
[edit]The Ten Celestial Stems (천간) were used as another "numbering" system for Sangpyeong Tongbo cash coins for furnace or "series" numbers.[1]
| Symbol (Hanja) |
Symbol (Hangul) |
Korean name | Represented number | Image |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 甲 | 갑 | Gap | One (1) | |
| 乙 | 을 | Eul | Two (2) | |
| 丙 | 병 | Byeong | Three (3) | |
| 丁 | 정 | Jeong | Four (4) | |
| 戊 | 무 | Mu | Five (5) | |
| 己 | 기 | Gi | Six (6) | |
| 庚 | 경 | Gyeong | Seven (7) | |
| 辛 | 신 | Sin | Eight (8) | |
| 壬 | 임 | Im | Nine (9) | |
| 癸 | 계 | Gye | Ten (10) |
The Twelve Terrestrial Branches
[edit]Like how the Ten Celestial Stems are used for numbering Sangpyeong Tongbo cash coins, the Twelve Terrestrial Branches (지지, or "Twelve Earthly Branches"), another system used in the traditional Chinese calendar's Sexagenary cycle (육십갑자),[7] was used to indicate furnace or "series" numbers.[1]
| Character (Hanja) |
Character (Hangul) |
Korean (RR) |
Represented number | Image |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 子 | 자 | Ja | One (1) | |
| 丑 | 축 | Ch'uk | Two (2) | |
| 寅 | 인 | In | Three (3) | |
| 卯 | 묘 | Myo | Four (4) | |
| 辰 | 진 | Jin | Five (5) | |
| 巳 | 사 | Sa | Six (6) | |
| 午 | 오 | O | Seven (7) | |
| 未 | 미 | Mi | Eight (8) | |
| 申 | 신 | Sin | Nine (9) | |
| 酉 | 유 | Yu | Ten (10) | |
| 戌 | 술 | Sul | Eleven (11) | |
| 亥 | 해 | Hae | Twelve (12) |
Cash coins with the character "☳"
[edit]A small number of 2 mun Sangpyeong Tongbo cash coins (當二錢, dangijun, "Value Two (Coins)") manufactured by the T'ongyong Naval Office with the Eight Trigrams (팔괘) character on them.[1] The character "☳" ("Thunder")[8] was written on their reverses as well as a number of other Hanja characters.[1]
| Character | Hanja / Hangul | Korean (RR) |
Meaning | Image |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ☳ | 震 / 진 | Jin | Thunder |
Miscellaneous characters
[edit]There are also a vast number of miscellaneous Hanja characters found on the reverse side of Sangpyeong Tongbo cash coins of which their meaning or what they represent is currently not known.[1]
Some of these Chinese characters include:[1]
| Character (Hanja) |
Character (Hangul) |
Korean (RR) |
English | Image |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 入 | 입 | Ip | Enter | |
| 大 | 대 | Tae | Big, Large |
|
| 工 | 공 | Kong | Work | |
| 千 | 천 | Chon | Thousand | _Military_Training_Command_Mint_(%E8%A8%93)_02.jpg){kind=small}
|
| 文 | 문 | Mun | Cash coin | _Military_Training_Command_Mint_(%E8%A8%93)_12.jpg){kind=small}
|
| 元 | 원 | Won | The first, Round |
_Military_Training_Command_Mint_(%E8%A8%93)_24.jpg){kind=small}
|
| 天 | 천 | Chon | Heaven | _Military_Training_Command_Mint_(%E8%A8%93)_08.jpg){kind=small}
|
| 中 | 중 | Chung | Middle, Centre |
|
| 正 | 정 | Chong | Upright | |
| 生 | 생 | Saeng | Produce |
|
| 光 | 광 | Kwang | Light | |
| 全 | 전 | Chon | Complete |
|
| 吉 | 길 | Kil | Auspicious | |
| 完 | 완 | Wan | Finish, Whole, Complete |
Struck coinage
[edit]During the 1880s and 1890s the Korean government had experimented with several holed machine-struck coin designs, it is unknown if some of these coins entered circulation.[9] During this period the Central Government Mint (典圜局, 전원국) created a machine-struck brass Sangpyeong Tongbo cash coin with a round centre hole.[10]
While it would be in the year 1892 that the over 250 year production of the Sangpyeong Tongbo series of cash coins would come to an end, a decade earlier in 1882 (or Gojong 19), the Korean government had experimented with creating machine-struck coinage based on Western designs and design patterns.[1] The first issues were made from silver and lacked the iconic square centre hole designs of earlier and contemporary Korean coinages.[1]
When Korean opened up its port cities to trade with foreign businessmen, it became apparent that the small denomination Sangpyeong Tongbo cash coins were not convenient at all for doing business which require larger transactions to take place, this inspired the creation of a new series of coinage made from silver.[1] All of these coins had the characters "大東" (대동, dae dong, literally translated as "the Great East" which was one of the alternative names of Korea) in their obverse inscriptions.[1] All of these new milled coins were manufactured by the Treasury Department Mint (戶曹局, 호조국), this mint was also responsible for the manufacture of Sangpyeong Tongbo cash coins. A major difference being that the "戶" (호) mint mark on the milled coinage was located in the middle of a circle, this circle itself was situated in the centre of the reverse side of the coin and was surrounded by coloured enamel (which was coloured either blue, green, or black).[1] Specimens without the coloured cloisonné are valued at about one half the normal valuations of the coloured Dae Dong coins. There are many types of trial sets of 1, 2, and 3 jeon in existence.[10]
List of Dae Dong coins:[1]
| Silver Dae Dong coins | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Obverse image | Reverse image | Value | Technical parameters | Description | Years of production | |||||
| Diameter | Thickness | Mass | Composition | Edge | Obverse | Reverse | ||||
| 1 jeon | 20 ~ 22 mm | 3.4-3.7 grams | Silver | Plain/Smooth | 大東一錢 (대동일전, "Dae Dong 1 jeon") |
戶 (호, "household"), "Ho" in green, black, or blue cloisonné enameled center circle. |
1882–1883 | |||
| 2 jeon | 27 ~ 28 mm | 7.1-7.7 grams | Silver | Plain/Smooth | 大東二錢 (대동이전, "Dae Dong 2 jeon") |
戶 (호, "household"), "Ho" in green, black, or blue cloisonné enameled center circle. |
1882–1883 | |||
| 3 jeon | 32.5 ~ 33 mm | 10.6 grams | Silver | Plain/Smooth | 大東三錢 (대동삼전, "Dae Dong 3 jeon") |
戶 (호, "household"), "Ho" in green, black, or blue cloisonné enameled center circle. |
1882–1883 | |||
Other than the overal design patterns there are multiple varieties of the 3 jeon (錢, 전) coin, these include variants based on character sizes (large character, medium character, and small character).[1]
These new machine-struck coins did not manage to stabilise the Korean monetary system, this was due to the rising price of silver as well as the high cost of acquiring the machines necessary for their production and the production process itself.[1] It became a huge issue when the yangban nobility started hoarding these coins for export at a profit and their production was stopped as a result in June of the year 1883, only a year after their initial introduction.[1] The same year the Korean government would purchase equipment for the production of milled coinage from the German Empire.[1]
Half a decade later between the years 1886 and 1888 ("開國 497", or Kaeguk 497) the Korean government mint in Seoul (京成典圜局, 경성전환국) began producing a minor number of machine-struck coins denominated in mun (文, 문) and hwan ("warn", "whan" 圜, 환), these coins had coin patterns similar to those of contemporary Japanese coins.[1] In this system the mun was worth 1⁄1000 "warn". They would only be produced in three different denominations, these were the 5 mun (5 文), 10 mun (10 文), and 1 warn (1 圜).[1]
List of machine-struck coins produced by the Korean government mint in Seoul:[1]
| Machine-struck coins produced by the Korean government mint in Seoul (京成典圜局) | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Obverse image | Reverse image | Value | Technical parameters | Description | Years of production | |||||
| Diameter | Thickness | Mass | Composition | Edge | Obverse | Reverse | ||||
| 5 mun | 21.7 mm | 1.5 mm | 2.8 grams | 98% copper, 1% tin, and 1% zinc | Plain/Smooth | A Korean dragon chasing a flaming wish-granting pearl within a beaded circle, and legends around the border; text "年(七/六/五)十九百四國開鮮朝大 ○ 문오 ○ 5 MUN". | Denomination in wreath. | 1886–1888 | ||
| 10 mun | 27.5 mm | 1.5 mm | 6.5 grams | 98% copper, 1% tin, and 1% zinc | Plain/Smooth | A Korean dragon chasing a flaming wish-granting pearl within a beaded circle, and legends around the border; text "年(七/六/五)十九百四國開鮮朝大 ○ 십문 ○ 10 MUN". | Denomination in wreath. | 1886–1888 | ||
 |
1 warn | 38 mm | 2.5 mm | 26.95 grams | 90% silver and 10% copper | Plain/Smooth | A Korean dragon chasing a flaming wish-granting pearl within a beaded circle, and legends around the border; text "年(七/六/五)十九百四國開鮮朝大○원일○ 416•1 WARN • 900". | Denomination in wreath. | 1886–1888 | |
Only a total of 1,300 coins of the 1 warn denomination were struck, making them quite rare.[1]
Banknotes
[edit]In the year 1900, which was 8 years after the currency had been abolished, the Japanese-owned Keijo Pusan Railway Company issued banknotes denominated in 50, 100, 300, and 500 mun. The Tong Sun Tai Hoa also issued a banknote with the denomination of 10.000 mun.[11][12]
| Banknotes of the Keijo Pusan Railway Company (1900) | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Image | Value | Main Colour | Description | Date of issue | ||
| Obverse | Reverse | Obverse | Reverse | |||
_01.jpg)
|
_02.jpg)
|
50 mun (五拾文) |
Dark blue | Image of a steam train; denomination; text. | Company logo; text; company seal. | 1900 |
_01.jpg)
|
_02.jpg)
|
100 mun (百文) |
Brown | Image of a steam train; denomination; text. | Company logo; text; company seal. | 1900 |
| 300 mun (三百文) |
Image of a steam train; denomination; text. | Company logo; text; company seal. | 1900 | |||
_01.jpg)
|
_02.jpg)
|
500 mun (五百文) |
Orange | Image of a steam train; denomination; text. | Company logo; text; company seal. | 1900 |
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa Cite error: The named reference
primaltrekwas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Krause 2009, p. 868.
- ^ Lee (이), In-u (인우); Kang Jae-hun (강재훈) (2012-01-03). [이사람] "천자문이 한문 입문서? 우주 이치 담은 책". The Hankyoreh (in Korean). Retrieved 2012-01-03.
- ^ Wilkinson, Endymion (2012). Chinese History: A New Manual. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Asia Center. ISBN 9780674067158., pp. 295, 601
- ^ Jeon Sun-sun and Eo Yoon-hyung (전창선·어윤형), What's the Five Elements ? (《오행은 뭘까?》), 세기, 1994년, ISBN 89-7263-018-7 (in Korean).
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
NIKHCurrencywas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Yuval Blum. "Introduction to the "STEMS AND BRANCHES" theory". Mahaya Forest Hill Integrative Health Clinic, Toronto. Archived from the original on 2018-08-27. Retrieved 2018-08-27.
- ^ Wilhelm, Richard (1950). The I Ching or Book of Changes. translated by Cary F. Baynes, forward by C. G. Jung, preface to 3rd ed. by Hellmut Wilhelm (1967). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 266, 269. ISBN 069109750X.
- ^ Standard Catalog of World Coins - 1801–1900, 6th Edition, publication date 2009, Krause Publications, Pages: 879-880.
- ^ a b Krause 2009, p. 879.
- ^ Standard Catalog of World Paper Money - General Issues, 1368–1960, 16th Edition, publication date 2016, Krause Publications, ISBN 978-1-4402-4707-1
- ^ Standard Catalog of World Paper Money - Specialized Issues, 12th Edition, publication date 2013, Krause Publications, ISBN 978-1-4402-3883-3
Dutch part to translate
[edit]- User:Donald Trung/Sangpyeong Tongbo (상평통보, 常平通寶) expansion (late 2019)/Dutch section on non-mint mint marks. Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 20:13, 28 September 2019 (UTC) .
Standard (modern) coin template layout
[edit]- User:Donald Trung/Sangpyeong Tongbo (상평통보, 常平通寶) expansion (late 2019)/Standard (modern) coin template layout. Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 20:43, 27 September 2019 (UTC) .
Early Joseon cash coins
[edit]- User:Donald Trung/Sangpyeong Tongbo (상평통보, 常平通寶) expansion (late 2019)/Early Joseon cash coins. Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 21:04, 27 September 2019 (UTC) .
Korean Qianziwen
[edit]- User:Donald Trung/Sangpyeong Tongbo (상평통보, 常平通寶) expansion (late 2019)/Korean Qianziwen. Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 18:46, 28 September 2019 (UTC) .
Standard reference templates
[edit]- October 2019.
- <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2019|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="ChinaKnowledge">{{cite web|url= http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Terms/qianzhuang.html|title= .|date=|accessdate=October 2019|author= Ulrich Theobald|publisher= [[Chinaknowledge]].de|language=en}}</ref>
- September 2019.
- <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2019|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="ChinaKnowledge">{{cite web|url= http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Terms/qianzhuang.html|title= .|date=|accessdate=September 2019|author= Ulrich Theobald|publisher= [[Chinaknowledge]].de|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="GlobalTimesShanghaiMoneyShops">{{cite web|url= http://www.globaltimes.cn/content/778840.shtml|title= The rise and fall of money shops.|date=2013-5-2 17:33:00|accessdate=10 September 2019|author= Zhang Yu|publisher= [[Global Times]]|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="GlobalTimesShanghaiMoneyShops">{{cite web|url= http://www.globaltimes.cn/content/778840.shtml|title= The rise and fall of money shops.|date=2 May 2013|accessdate=10 September 2019|author= Zhang Yu|publisher= [[Global Times]]|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="DukeEastAsiaNexusChinese1935CurrencyReform">{{cite web|url= http://www.dukenex.us/noah-elbot-chinas-1935-currency-reform.html|title= China's 1935 Currency Reform: A Nascent Success Cut Short By Noah Elbot.|date=2019|accessdate=15 September 2019|author= Noah Elbot|publisher= Duke East Asia Nexus ([[Duke University]]).|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref>[[Korea Minting and Security Printing Corporation]] - [http://www.koreamint.com/goods/detail.do?gno=10070&cate=1857 Samhantongbo Dangbaekjeon Gold medal] - Retrieved: 29 September 2019. (in [[Korean language|Korean]]).</ref>
- <ref name="NIKHCurrency">{{cite web|url= http://contents.history.go.kr/front/eng/tz/view.do?levelId=tz_b25|title= Korean Currency.|date=2019|accessdate=29 September 2019|author= Not listed|publisher= [[National Institute of Korean History]]|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="NIKHCurrency"/>
- <ref name="PrimaltrekKoreanTomb">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/blog/2016/01/23/xin-dynasty-coins-found-in-korean-tomb/|title=Xin Dynasty Coins Found in Korean Tomb.|date=23 January 2016|accessdate=5 September 2017|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="BusanDdadangJoseonEconomy">{{cite web|url= http://www.busanddadang.com/joseons-economic-system/?ckattempt=1|title=Joseon’s Economic System - “We have a system that increasingly taxes work and subsidizes non work.” – Milton Friedman (1912-2006), an American economist.|date=8 March 2016|accessdate=30 September 2019|author= [http://www.busanddadang.com/author/incauto/ Jung Inman]|publisher= Busan ddadang (the happy life of Busan).|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="SogouBaikeGeonwonJungbo">{{cite web|url= https://baike.sogou.com/m/v44424178.htm|title= 乾元重宝背东国.|date=2019|accessdate=30 September 2019|author= Sogou Baike (搜狗百科)|publisher= [[Sogou]] (搜狗公司)|language=zh-cn}}</ref>
- <ref name="SogouBaikeGeonwonJungbo"/>
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- <ref name="ChinaKnowledge">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate=April 2019|author= Ulrich Theobald|publisher= [[Chinaknowledge]].de|language=en}}</ref>
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- <ref name="primaltrek"/>
To use
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- <ref name="SandrockForeignBanknotes1">{{cite web|url= http://thecurrencycollector.com/pdfs/Foreign_Banks_in_China_Part-I.pdf|title= THE FOREIGN BANKS IN CHINA, PART I - EARLY IMPERIAL ISSUES (1850-1900) by John E. Sandrock - The Opening of China to the Outside World.|date=1997|accessdate=1 April 2019|author= John E. Sandrock|publisher= The Currency Collector.|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="SandrockForeignBanknotes1"/>
- <ref name="SandrockForeignBanknotes2">{{cite web|url= http://thecurrencycollector.com/pdfs/Foreign_Banks_in_China_Part-II.pdf|title=FOREIGN BANKS IN CHINA, Part II - IMPERIAL CHINESE ISSUES (1900-1911) by John E. Sandrock.|date=1997|accessdate=10 April 2019|author= John E. Sandrock|publisher= The Currency Collector.|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="SandrockForeignBanknotes2"/>
- <ref name="SandrockCopperCashNotes">{{cite web|url= http://thecurrencycollector.com/pdfs/Ching_Dynasty_Copper_Cash_Notes_-_Part_II.pdf|title=IMPERIAL CHINESE CURRENCY OF THE TAI'PING REBELLION - Part II - CH'ING DYNASTY COPPER CASH NOTES by John E. Sandrock.|date=1997|accessdate=20 April 2019|author= John E. Sandrock|publisher= The Currency Collector.|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="SandrockCopperCashNotes"/>
- <ref name="SandrockSilverTaelNotes">{{cite web|url= http://thecurrencycollector.com/pdfs/Ching_Dynasty_Silver_Tael_Notes_-_Part_III.pdf|title=IMPERIAL CHINESE CURRENCY OF THE TAI'PING REBELLION - PART III - CH'ING DYNASTY SILVER TAEL NOTES by John E. Sandrock.|date=1997|accessdate=29 June 2019|author= John E. Sandrock|publisher= The Currency Collector.|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="SandrockSilverTaelNotes"/>
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- <ref name="CambridgeInflation"/>
- <ref name="Brill2015">[https://www.academia.edu/28400259/_Silver_Copper_Rice_and_Debt_Monetary_Policy_and_Office_Selling_in_China_during_the_Taiping_Rebellion_in_Money_in_Asia_1200_1900_Small_Currencies_in_Social_and_Political_Contexts_ed._by_Jane_Kate_Leonard_and_Ulrich_Theobald_Leiden_Brill_2015_343-395 “Silver, Copper, Rice, and Debt: Monetary Policy and Office Selling in China during the Taiping Rebellion,” in Money in Asia (1200–1900): Small Currencies in Social and Political Contexts, ed.] by Jane Kate Leonard and Ulrich Theobald, [[Leiden]]: Brill, 2015, 343-395.</ref>
- <ref name="Brill2015"/>
- <ref name="HoreshQing">{{cite web|url= https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-981-10-0622-7_54-1|title= The Monetary System of China under the Qing Dynasty.|date=28 September 2018|accessdate=29 July 2019|author= [[Niv Horesh]]|publisher= [[Springer Nature|Springer Link]]|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="HoreshQing"/>
- <ref name="ChinaKnowledgeQianzhuang">{{cite web|url= http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Terms/qianzhuang.html|title= ''qianzhuang'' 錢莊, private banks.|date=24 November 2015|accessdate=9 August 2019|author= Ulrich Theobald|publisher= [[Chinaknowledge]].de|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="ChinaKnowledgeQianzhuang"/>
- <ref name="WangYanfenRiskControl">{{cite web|url= http://www.cscanada.net/index.php/ibm/article/view/10849|title= The Risk Control of Qianzhuang.|date=26 December 2018
|accessdate=16 September 2019|author= Wang Yanfen, Doctoral student. School of Economics, Central University of Finance and Economics, [[Beijing]], [[China]]. (Received 16 September 2018; accepted 22 November 2018) - [http://www.cscanada.net/index.php/ibm/article/view/10849/pdf .pdf]|publisher= Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture and Canadian Research and Development Centre of Sciences and Cultures|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="WangYanfenRiskControl"/>
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- * <ref name="FEEHyperinflationOrigins1988"/>
Misc. Charac.
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More sources
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