User:Donald Trung/Lead cash coins (鉛錢)

This page serves as "the editing history" of the English Wikipedia article "Qianqian" (鉛錢), among others, and is preserved for attribution.

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qianqian&oldid=1171468538 Published. --Donald Trung (talk) 08:10, 21 August 2023 (UTC) .

Original draft

{{Distinguish|Qian Qian}} {{chinese | title = Lead cash coins | pic = Crude lead Kai Yuan Tong Bao (開元通寶) - Southern Han Kingdom - Scott Semans.jpg | picsize = 250px | piccap = A crude lead [[Kaiyuan Tongbao]] (開元通寳) [[Cash (Chinese coin)|cash coin]] produced during the [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period]], attributed either to the [[Southern Han]] or the [[Ma Chu|Southern Chu Kingdom]]. | t = 鉛錢 | s = 铅钱 | p = qiān qián | w = | j = | poj = | mnc = | mnc_v = | qn = Duyên tiền | chuhan = 鉛錢 | kyujitai = 鉛錢 | shinjitai = 鉛銭 | kana = なまりせん | romaji = Namarisen }} '''Lead cash coins''' ({{zh |first=t | t= 鉛錢 | s= 铅钱 | hp= qiān qián| links=yes}}; [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]: ''Duyên tiền'';{{Efn|Vernacular Vietnamese: ''Tiền đúc bằng chì''.}} [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: 鉛銭 (なまりせん); [[Romanisation of Japanese|Rōmaji]]: ''Namarisen'') are a type of [[Cash (Chinese coin)|Chinese]], [[Japanese mon (currency)|Japanese]], and [[Vietnamese cash coin]] that were produced at various times during the [[History of Chinese currency|monetary history of imperial China]], Japan, and Vietnam. Typically cash coins produced in China between between 300 BC and 1505 AD were made of [[bronze]] and those produced after 1505 AD were made of [[brass]].{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=ii}} But, like with [[iron cash coins]], at times when copper was scarce government authorities would produce lead cash coins in order to supplement the [[money supply]] and maintain [[market liquidity]]. The production of lead cash coins predominantly happened in regions where large quantities of lead were mined, namely [[southern China]] and the [[Tōhoku region]] in northern [[Honshu]]. China is the first country in the world to issue lead coins, though when the first lead coins were produced remains controversial as it is commonly believed that the first lead coins in the world were the small [[Kaiyuan Tongbao]] (開元通寳) cash coins produced during the reign of King [[Wang Shenzhi]] of the [[Min (Ten Kingdoms)|Min Kingdom]] ([[Fujian]]) in 916.<ref name="Song-Shan-1990">Song Shan (嵩山) - ''Casting lead money begins with swallows'' (以铅铸钱始于燕) - "China Numismatics", Issue 1, 1990 (《中国钱币》1990年第1期 - 55-57页共4页). Quote: "我国是最早以铅铸钱的国家,这己为人们所公认。" (China is the first country to cast money with lead, which has been recognised by people.).</ref> However, some claim that the production of lead coins was actually started a millennium earlier during the [[Zhou dynasty]] period.<ref name="Song-Shan-1990"/> Lead cash coins were also produced in what is today [[Indonesia]] by groups of [[Chinese Indonesians|Overseas Chinese]] living in the archipelago.<ref>Yi Zhongting (易仲廷) and Yao Shuomin (姚朔民) - ''Rare indonesian lead cash coins'' (罕见的印度尼西亚铅钱) - "Chinese Numismatics", Issue 4, 1990 (《中国钱币》1990年第4期: 63-48页共3页).</ref> The production of lead [[cash coins in Indonesia]] happened alongside tin and copper-alloy cash coins.<ref>De Munten van Nederlandsch Indië, by Netscher and Van der Chijs [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies]] - 1863) (in [[Dutch language|Dutch]]).</ref> == Overview == [[Iron cash coins]] and lead cash coins were often used in cases when there was an insufficient supply of copper.<ref name="Lars-Bo-Christensen-Other-Materials">{{cite web|url= http://chinesecoins.lyq.dk/othermaterials.html|title= Coins made of other materials than bronze.|date=26 April 2014|access-date=17 August 2023|author= Lars Bo Christensen (李博 - 丹麥)|publisher= Ancient Chinese Coins (中華古錢幣)|language=en}}</ref> Because of how soft lead is, most lead cash coins that are found today tend to be very worn.<ref name="Lars-Bo-Christensen-Other-Materials"/> Lead cash coins have only been produced at a few times in the monetary history of china, mainly during the [[Five dynasties and Ten kingdoms period]].<ref name="Lars-Bo-Christensen-Other-Materials"/><ref>Xiong Weiguang (熊慰光) - ''Looking at the lead Kaiyuan cash coins of the early Min Kingdom of the Five Dynasties currency'' (从铅开元看五代闽国初期货币) - Fujian Numismatics, 1994 (福建钱币, 1994).</ref> In some cases the usage of certain types of materials to produce cash coins are only more recently discovered due to the lack of historical records mentioning them.<ref name="Lars-Bo-Christensen-Other-Materials"/> In some cases modern economic historians mention that they existed but don't go into much detail about them, for example [[Peng Xinwei]] mentions that lead and iron cash coins but doesn't mention much about them, only writing that the King of Chu was advised to use iron and lead because it was available in large amounts.<ref name="Peng-263">[[Peng Xinwei|Peng, Xinwei]]: A Monetary History of China. vol I. and II. (Translated from the Chinese original Zhongguo Huobi Shi 1965 by Kaplan, Edward H.) 1994 ([[Western Washington University]]). Pages: 263.</ref> It has only been since more recent times that the fact that the [[Song dynasty]] had attempted to produce lead cash coins been discovered.<ref name="Lars-Bo-Christensen-Other-Materials"/> Because of this almost no Chinese coin catalogues list their existence while they have mentioned in works such as the ''Meng Guohua: Guilin Faxian Qian Xi Hejin Qian. Zhongguo Qianbi No. 3. 1994 (Vol. 46.)'' which deal with the topic.<ref name="Lars-Bo-Christensen-Other-Materials"/> Besides official coins, counterfeit cash coins would often employ official inscriptions, like [[Yongzheng Tongbao]] (雍正通寳), but be made entirely out of lead.<ref>Zhang Baojian (张宝舰) - ''Qingxian County, Hebei Province found privately minted "Yongzheng Tongbao" lead cash coins in Guizhou'' (河北青县发现贵州私铸 “雍正通宝” 铅钱) - Guizhou Literature and History Series 4, 1986 (贵州文史丛刊 4, 1986).</ref> == Han dynasty == {{Main article|Han dynasty coinage}} In a 2005 article in the numismatic journal ''Xinjiang Numismatics'' (新疆钱币), it was reported that a number of lead cash coins dating to the [[Western Han dynasty]] period [[List of coin hoards in China#2005 (Mainland China)|were uncovered]] in a small village in the [[Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region]].<ref>Zhang Zhichao (张智超) - ''Exploration of Western Han Dynasty lead cash coins unearthed in Yanchi County, Ningxia'' (宁夏盐池县出土西汉铅钱探索) - "Xinjiang Numismatics" 2005 No. 3 (《新疆钱币》2005年第3期: 44-56页共13页).</ref> == Tang dynasty == Between 1982 and 2002 the numismatic researcher [[Qian Boquan]] (钱伯泉) collected over 5 lead [[List of Chinese cash coins by inscription#Tang dynasty|Dali Yuanbao]] (大曆元寳) cash coins on the [[Ürümqi]] coin market.<ref name="Qian-Boquan-2002">Qian Boquan (钱伯泉) - ''A short discussion about Dali Yuanbao lead cash coins'' (大历元宝铅钱小谈) - "Xinjiang Numismatics" 2002 No. 3 (《新疆钱币》2002年第3期: 7-7页共2页).</ref> In a 2002 article in the numismatic journal ''Xinjiang Numismatics'' (新疆钱币), Qian Boquan reported that these lead Dali Yuanbao vary in size and weight.<ref name="Qian-Boquan-2002"/> They range from having a diameter of 26 to 29 millimeters, a thickness of 4 to 5 millimeters, and a weight of 5.7 to 7.8 grams.<ref name="Qian-Boquan-2002"/> The obverse and reverse of each cash coin is filled with a yellow-white alkaline [[patina]].<ref name="Qian-Boquan-2002"/> == Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms == According to [[Yang Lien-sheng]], from the year 916 lead cash coins were being cast in what is today [[Fujian]], this was followed by the production of [[iron cash coins]] shortly afterwards.<ref name="Yang-Lien-sheng-page-28">Yang, Lien-sheng: ''Money and Credit in China, a Short History.'' [[Harvard University Press]]. Cambridge 1971. Page: 28.</ref> After this was pioneered in the Fujian region it was adopted by the neighbouring dynasties and kingdoms.<ref name="Yang-Lien-sheng-page-28"/> During this period bronze cash coins would continue to remain the dominant currency of the countryside, while iron and lead cash coins were widely being circulated in urban areas.<ref name="Yang-Lien-sheng-page-28"/> This was a good method to balance imports and exports because foreign tradesmen and merchants could not use the iron and lead cash coins they received as payment in other states, forcing them to spend them locally before they left.<ref name="Yang-Lien-sheng-page-28"/> At times, lead cash coins dated to this period are found bearing Inscriptions of which seem to have been omitted from the historical records, for example a lead Guangzheng Tongbao (廣政通寳) cash coin attributed to the [[Later Shu]].<ref>Zhao Hanguo (赵汉国) - ''Guangzheng Tongbao lead cash coin found in Hanzhong'' (汉中发现广政通宝铅钱) - Xi'an Finance, 1996 (西安金融, 1996). - Quote: "< 正> 今年春节过后, 笔者在汉中市场购得一枚广政通宝铅钱, 钱有破裂痕, 但已修补, 伤及钱文较轻, 文字基本完整. 直径 2.6, 穿 0.7, 厚 0.1 厘米, 重 3.8 克. 售钱者是驻河东店某单位一离休干部. 据说此钱就在褒河".</ref> === Min Kingdom === In the year 916, [[Wang Shenzhi]], King of the [[Min (Ten Kingdoms)|Min Kingdom]] began to make lead cash coins, and thereafter, lead coins were circulated along with the traditional copper-alloy coins.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=116}}<ref name="SGCQ90">''[[Spring and Autumn Annals of the Ten Kingdoms]]'' (十國春秋), [https://archive.org/stream/06075841.cn#page/n2/mode/2up vol. 90].</ref> This series of small lead coins bore the inscription Kaiyuan Tongbao (開元通寳) on their obverse sides and either had the character ''Min'' (閩), ''Fu'' (福), or ''Yin'' (殷), above the square central hole, on their reverse sides.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=116}} Some of these lead coins have a [[Han dynasty coinage#Dots, crescents, circles, numbers, counting rods, Chinese characters, and other symbols appearing on coins|crescent below and/or a dot on the left]] of the square central hole.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=116}} These cash coins were minted in what is today [[Ninghua County]], [[Sanming]], [[Fujian]] after deposits of lead were discovered in the area.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=116}}<ref>Xin Shimin (欣士敏) - ''Wang Shenzhi cast lead cash coins for the wealth and convenience of the country'' (王审知富国便民铸铅钱) - "Development Research" Issue 8, 2002 (《发展研究》2002年第8期: 27-27页共1页) - Fujian Huafu Company (福建省华福公司).</ref> These cash coins are collectively referred to as "Min Kaiyuan lead cash coins" (閩開元鉛錢, 闽开元铅钱) by modern Chinese numismatists, and thanks to archeological findings a larger number of variants have been uncovered than was first believed to exist.<ref>Jiang Jiuru (蒋九如), Liu Jingyang (刘敬扬), and Chai Guohong (柴国宏) - ''A preliminary study on the types and casters of Min Kaiyuan lead cash coins'' (闽开元铅钱的版别和铸造者初探) - "Fujian Finance" Issue 9, 1990 (《福建金融》1990年第9期, 69-70页共2页).</ref> In the Kingdom of Min a single bronze Yonglong Tongbao (永隆通寳) was valued at 10 small cash coins and as much as 100 lead cash coins.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=116}} === Ma Chu === The minister [[Gao Yu]] advised [[Ma Yin|King Wumu of Chu]] to cast lead and iron cash coins at [[Changsha]] in 925, this was because of the abundance of lead and iron in the [[Hunan]] region.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=118}} 1 lead or iron cash coin was nominally worth 10 copper-alloy cash coins, though their region of circulation was largely confined to Changsha.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=118}} In Changsha the merchants would trade these coins which only benefited the government of the Kingdom of Chu.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=118}} The small lead cash coins said to have been cast by this kingdom bore the Inscriptions [[Qianfeng Quanbao]] (乾封泉寶) and [[Qianyuan Zhongbao]] (乾元重寳), inscriptions previously used by the Tang dynasty for bronze cash coins.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=118}} Bronze cash coins with this same inscription dated to this period are sometimes attributed to have been produced during the reign of King Wumu, but their usage may have been as [[Chinese burial money|funerary items]] rather than as circulation currency.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=118}} In the year 929, the government of the Chu Kingdom officially fixed the value of a lead cash coin as {{Frac|100}} of a bronze cash coin.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} Later, in 962, the royal government issued a decree stipulating that lead cash coins should circulate in urban areas, while bronze cash coins should circulate in the countryside.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} Those who did not obey this decree risked facing the [[death penalty]].{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} === Southern Tang Kingdom === {{Main|Southern Tang coinage}} The [[Southern Tang Kingdom]] issued a lead version of the Tangguo Tongbao (唐國通寳), an inscription which was also used for bronze and iron cash coins.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=119–120}} === Southern Han Kingdom === The [[Southern Han]] issued a number of lead cash coins during its existence.<ref>Zhou Qingzhong (周庆忠) - ''Supplement to the Lead Cash Coins Foundries in the Southern Han Dynasty'' (南汉铸行铅钱补遗) - "Guangxi Financial Research" Issue B11, 2007 (《广西金融研究》2007年第B11期).</ref>{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121–123}} The first series of lead cash coins attributed to this kingdom had the inscription Kaiping Yuanbao (開平元寳) and is attributed to the kingdom's founder, [[Liu Yin]].{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121–123}}<ref>《中國古錢目錄》''Zhongguo Gu Qian Mulu'' (Catalogue of Old Chinese Coins). Hua Guangpu (華光普). Hunan, 1998. Page: 383.</ref> These cash coins were possible cast to commemorate a [[Liang dynasty]] period title.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121–123}} Another series of lead cash coins, that also had bronze equivalents, was the Qianheng Zhongbao (乾亨重寳).{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121–123}} Some of these contained the traditional Chinese character "Yong" (邕) on their reverse side.<ref>Xu Gang (徐钢) - ''Research on lead cash coins with the character "Yong" (邕) on their reverse side with the inscription Qianheng Chongbao issued by the Southern Han Dynasty'' (南汉乾亨重宝背“邕”铅钱考) - "Regional Finance Research", Issue S1, 1998 (《区域金融研究》1998年第S1期).</ref> === Crude lead coins === {{Main|Ancient Chinese coinage#Crude lead coins|List of Chinese cash coins by inscription#Crude lead coins}} During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period a number of small, poorly made, illiterately written lead cash coins circulated in the Southern Han and Chu area.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122–123}} The origins of these cash coins remain unknown.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122–123}} Chinese characters and inscriptions found on these crude coins are often reversed because the incompetent workmen had not mastered the art of engraving in negative to make the coin moulds.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122–123}} Some specimens of these crude coins likewise have meaningless and nonsensical characters and inscriptions.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122–123}} These crude lead coins exhibit a great variety due to the incompetence of the workmen, in some instances the character "Kai" (開), as in "Kaiyuan Tongbao", appears to be a "Yong" (用).{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122–123}} Due to their crudeness it is evident that these cash coins were not officially government issued coins, but privately produced coins likely made by merchants or the people.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122–123}} == Song dynasty == [[File:Song - Blymonter forsider.jpg|thumb|left|Lead cash coins attributed to the Song dynasty period, these were unknown until relatively recent archeological discoveries.]] Until relatively recently, it wasn't known that the imperial government of the [[Song dynasty]] had attempted several times to create lead cash coins.<ref name="Lars-Bo-Christensen-Other-Materials"/> In a 2011 article in the numismatic journal ''Jiangsu Numismatics'' (江苏钱币), numismatic researcher [[Pan Guorong]] (潘国荣) described a lead Zhenghe Tongbao (政和通寳) cash coin issued during the reign of [[Emperor Huizong of Song|Emperor Huizong]].<ref name="Pan-Guorong-2011">Pan Guorong (潘国荣) ''Rare large-character Wenzheng seal script Zhenghe Tongbao Xiaoping lead cash coins'' (少见的大字文政篆书政和通宝小平铅钱) - "Jiangsu Numismatics" 2011 No. 3 (《江苏钱币》2011年第3期: 48-48页共1页).</ref> The coin had a diameter of 25 millimeters, a thickness of 1.3 millimeters, and a weight of 4.2 grams.<ref name="Pan-Guorong-2011"/> Pan Guorong noted that the shape, style, text, and weight were all similar to the regular issues with the same inscript.<ref name="Pan-Guorong-2011"/> Pan stated that these characteristics all indicate that this was an official casting and after comparative analysis by a number of other experts in the field it was concluded that this previously unknown lead cash coin is indeed undoubtedly genuine.<ref name="Pan-Guorong-2011"/> == Qing dynasty == It was reported in the records of the Qing dynasty that lead cash coins were minted for a brief period in the year 1854, although it seems that these lead cash coins were never actually introduced into the Chinese market and therefore did not circulate.<ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsXunYan">{{cite web|url= http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/3307/1/Yan_In_Search_of_Power.pdf|title= In Search of Power and Credibility - Essays on Chinese Monetary History (1851–1845).|date=March 2015|accessdate=8 February 2020|author= Xun Yan|publisher= Department of Economic History, [[London School of Economics|London School of Economics and Political Science]]|language=en}}</ref><ref>Yang, Lien-sheng: ''Money and Credit in China, a Short History.'' [[Harvard University Press]]. Cambridge (1971). Page: 29.</ref><ref>Jen, David: ''Chinese Cash, Identification and Price Guide.'' - [[Krause Publications]], [[United States|US]]. 2000. Page: 147.</ref> This happened in the context of a monetary crisis where the Qing dynasty government introduced a large number of different types of cash coins, including [[Daqian|large denomination cash coins]], [[Tieqian|iron cash coins]], and zinc cash coins.<ref>Wang Liangen (王连根) - ''Baoquan Mint "Xianfeng Zhongbao" as ten wén regular script lead cash coins'' (宝泉局“咸丰重宝”当十楷书铅钱) - "Coin Expo" 2002 No. 2 (《钱币博览》2002年第2期: 33-33页共1页).</ref><ref>Gu Yusheng (顾玉生) - 咸丰宝苏当干铅钱 - Suzhou Numismatics, 1999 (苏州钱币, 1999).</ref> == Taiping Heavenly Kingdom == {{Further|Chinese token (alternative currency)}} Two series of privately-issued lead cash coins, one with the inscription "Shengji Zuoyong" (生記作用), the other with the inscription "Hengji Dangshi" (亨記當十), are said to have circulated as an [[alternative currency]] in the [[Jiaxing Prefecture]], [[Zhejiang]] Province during the [[Taiping Heavenly Kingdom]] period, following the occupation of the region by the rebel government.<ref name="Dong-Xunguan-Cultural-Relics-1959">Dong Xunguan (董巽观) - ''Mineral lead cash coins in Jiaxing Prefecture, Zhejiang Province during the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom period'' (太平天国时期浙江嘉兴府的民鑄鉛錢). - Cultural Relics, 35-35, 1959 (文物, 35-35, 1959).</ref> Following the establishment of the central government Minting Bureau to issue [[Shengbao (currency)|its own holy currency]] the lead cash coins were recalled to be melted down.<ref name="Dong-Xunguan-Cultural-Relics-1959"/> However, a few people did not exchange these lead cash coins to the royal government and a small number of them have been preserved to this day.<ref name="Dong-Xunguan-Cultural-Relics-1959"/> According to insiders of the [[soy sauce]] making industry, the companies that operated the Shengji (生記) and Hengji (亨記) [[soy bean]] gardens had a large business scope during the Qing dynasty period and were also in the business of producing wine, wheat, beans, and rice, in order to do this they produced utensils made out of tin and lead.<ref name="Dong-Xunguan-Cultural-Relics-1959"/> Because these two shops were equipped with tin and lead tools and the right equipment to produce lead tools, the lead cash coins produced by them is so well made.<ref name="Dong-Xunguan-Cultural-Relics-1959"/> During the [[Xinhai Revolution|end of the Qing dynasty period]], the people from the Jiaxing region also collected a lot of money from the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, including the locally produced lead cash coins that served as an alternative currency, leading them to be preserved quite well by the time an article was written about them in the ''Cultural Relics'' (文物) journal in 1959.<ref name="Dong-Xunguan-Cultural-Relics-1959"/> == List of Chinese lead cash coins == {{See also|List of Chinese cash coins by inscription}} {|class="wikitable" style="font-size: 100%" |- ! Inscription !! [[Traditional Chinese]] !! [[Simplified Chinese]] !! Country or territory !! [[#Catalogue numbers|Catalogue numbers]] !! Obverse image !! Reverse image |- | Kaiyuan Tongbao - Min{{Efn|Crescent below on the reverse side.}}{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=116}} || 開元通寳 - 閩 || 开元通宝 - 闽 || [[Min (Ten Kingdoms)|Min Kingdom]] || Hartill #15.51, FD #739 || [[File:Stor bly kai Yuan fra Jeff forside.jpg|75px]] || [[File:Stor bly kai Yuan fra Jeff bagside.jpg|75px]] |- | Kaiyuan Tongbao - Min{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=116}} || 開元通寳 - 閩 || 开元通宝 - 闽 || Min Kingdom || Hartill #15.52, FD #777 || || |- | Kaiyuan Tongbao - Fu{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=116}} || 開元通寳 - 福 || 开元通宝 - 福 || Min Kingdom || Hartill #15.53 || || |- | Kaiyuan Tongbao - Yin{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=116}} || 開元通寳 - 殷 || 开元通宝 - 殷 || Min Kingdom || Hartill #15.54 || || |- | Qianyuan Zhongbao{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=118}} || 乾元重寳 || 乾元重宝 || [[Ma Chu]] || Hartill #15.70 || || |- | Qianyuan Zhongbao{{Efn|Crescent above on the reverse side.}}{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=118}} || 乾元重寳 || 乾元重宝 || Ma Chu || Hartill #15.70A, DCH #6717{{Efn|David Hartill collection number.}} || || |- | Tangguo Tongbao{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=120}} || 唐國通寳 || 唐国通宝 || [[Southern Tang]] || Hartill #15.92 || || |- | Kaiping Yuanbao{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=120}} || 開平元寳 || 开平元宝 || [[Southern Han]] || Hartill #15.105 || || |- | Qianheng Zhongbao{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121}} || 乾亨重寳 || 乾亨重宝 || Southern Han || Hartill #15.108, FD #826~ || || |- | Qianheng Zhongbao{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121}} || 乾亨重寳 || 乾亨重宝 || Southern Han || Hartill #15.109, FD #827 || || |- | Qianheng Zhongbao{{br}}(Inscription reversed){{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121}} || 乾亨重寳 || 乾亨重宝 || Southern Han || Hartill #15.110 || || |- | Qianheng Zhongbao{{br}}(亨 reversed){{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121}} || 乾亨重寳 || 乾亨重宝 || Southern Han || Hartill #15.111 || || |- | Qianheng Zhongbao - Yong{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121}} || 乾亨重寳 - 邕 || 乾亨重宝 - 邕 || Southern Han || Hartill #15.112, FD #828 || || |- | Kaiyuan Tongbao{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121}} || 開元通寳 || 开元通宝 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.114 || || |- | Kaiyuan Tongbao - Tan{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121}} || 開元通寳 - 潭 || 开元通宝 - 潭 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.115 || || |- | Kaiyuan Tongbao{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121}} || 開元通寳 || 开元通宝 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.116 || || |- | Kaiyuan Tongbao - Yi Bao{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121}} || 開元通寳 - 一寶 || 开元通宝 - 一宝 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.117 || || |- | Kaiyuan Tongbao - Bao Yi{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121}} || 開元通寳 - 寶一 || 开元通宝 - 宝一 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.118 || || |- | Kaiyuan Tongbao - Bao Er{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121}} || 開元通寳 - 寶二 || 开元通宝 - 宝二 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.119 || || |- | Kaiyuan Tongbao - Bao Si{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121}} || 開元通寳 - 寶四 || 开元通宝 - 宝四 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.120 || || |- | Kaiyuan Tongbao - Xing{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121}} || 開元通寳 - 興 || 开元通宝 - 兴 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.121 || || |- | Kaiyuan Tongbao - Xing Yi{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121}} || 開元通寳 - 興一 || 开元通宝 - 兴一 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.122 || || |- | Kaiyuan Tongbao - Xing Er{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121}} || 開元通寳 - 興二 || 开元通宝 - 兴二 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.123 || || |- | Kaiyuan Tongbao - Xing San{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121}} || 開元通寳 - 興三 || 开元通宝 - 兴三 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.124 || || |- | Kaiyuan Tongbao - Xing Si{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121}} || 開元通寳 - 興四 || 开元通宝 - 兴四 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.125 || || |- | Kaiyuan Tongbao - Nan Yi{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121}} || 開元通寳 - 南一 || 开元通宝 - 南一 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.126 || || |- | Kaiyuan Tongbao - Nan Er{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121}} || 開元通寳 - 南二 || 开元通宝 - 南二 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.127 || || |- | Kaiyuan Tongbao - Nan San{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121}} || 開元通寳 - 南三 || 开元通宝 - 南三 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.128 || || |- | Kaiyuan Tongbao - Nan Si{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=121}} || 開元通寳 - 南四 || 开元通宝 - 南四 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.129 || colspan=2 align="center" style="background:#efefef;" | [[File:Crude lead Kai Yuan Tong Bao (開元通寶) - Southern Han Kingdom - Scott Semans.jpg|200px]] |- | Kaiyuan Tongbao - Shang{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} || 開元通寳 - 上 || 开元通宝 - 上 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.130 || || |- | Kaiyuan Tongbao{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} || 開元通寳 || 开元通宝 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.131 || || |- | Kaiyuan Tongbao{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} || 開元通寳 || 开元通宝 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.132 || || |- | Kaiyuan Tongbao{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} || 開元通寳 || 开元通宝 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.133 || || |- | Kaida Tongbao{{Efn|The "Da" (大) in the Kai"da" Tongbao is clearly an error meant to read "Yuan" (元).}}{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} || 開大通寳 || 开大通宝 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.134 || || |- | Kaida Tongbao - Gui{{Efn|[[Guizhou]], [[Guangxi]] province.}}{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} || 開大通寳 - 桂 || 开大通宝 - 桂 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.135 || || |- | Kaida Tongbao - Jin Yi{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} || 開大通寳 - 金一 || 开大通宝 - 金一 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.136 || || |- | Kaida Tongbao - Jin Er{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} || 開大通寳 - 金二 || 开大通宝 - 金二 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.137 || || |- | Kaida Tongbao - Jin San{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} || 開大通寳 - 金三 || 开大通宝 - 金三 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.138 || || |- | Kaida Tongbao - Jin Si{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} || 開大通寳 - 金四 || 开大通宝 - 金四 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.139 || || |- | Kaida Tongbao - Yi{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} || 開大通寳 - 一 || 开大通宝 - 一 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.140 || || |- | Kaida Tongbao - Er{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} || 開大通寳 - 二 || 开大通宝 - 二 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.141 || || |- | Kaida Tongbao - San{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} || 開大通寳 - 三 || 开大通宝 - 三 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.142 || || |- | Kaida Tongbao - Si{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} || 開大通寳 - 四 || 开大通宝 - 四 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.143 || || |- | Kaiyuan Zhongbao{{Efn|These lead cash coins are small, despite the "Zhong" (重, "Heavy") in the inscription.}}{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} || 開元重寳 || 开元重宝 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.144 || || |- | Wu Wu{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} || 五五 || 五五 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.145 || || |- | Wu Wu{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} || 五五 || 五五 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.146 || || |- | Wu Wu - Nan{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} || 五五 - 南 || 五五 - 南 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.147 || || |- | Wu Wu - Bao{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} || 五五 - 寶 || 五五 - 宝 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.148 || || |- | Wu Wu - Xing{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} || 五五 - 興 || 五五 - 兴 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.149 || || |- | Wu Wu - Jin San{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} || 五五 - 金三 || 五五 - 金三 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.150 || || |- | Wu Wu{{Efn|Crescent above.}}{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} || 五五 || 五五 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.151 || || |- | Wu Wu{{Efn|Crescent above and below.}}{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=122}} || 五五 || 五五 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.152 || || |- | Wu Wu - Huo Quan{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=123}} || 五五 - 貨泉 || 五五 - 货泉 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.153 || || |- | Wu Wu Wu Wu{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=123}} || 五五五五 || 五五五五 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.154 || || |- | [[Wu Zhu]]{{Efn|The "釒" radical of the "Zhu" (銖) is mising.}}{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=123}} || 五朱 || 五朱 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.155 || || |- | Kaiyuan Wu Wu{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=123}} || 開元五五 || 开元五五 || Attributed to the{{br}}Southern Han/Chu area || Hartill #15.156 || || |} == Nguyễn lords == There is a lead cash coin with the inscription Thiên Minh Thông Bảo (天明通寳) produced in the [[Quảng Nam province]].<ref name="Toda-The-Nguy-khoi-Rebellion-The-Nung-Rebellion-Doubtful-Coins">{{cite web|url= https://art-hanoi.com/toda/21|title= XXI. The Nguy-khoi Rebellion. The Nung Rebellion. Doubtful Coins. 1600 to date.|date=1882|access-date=19 August 2023|author= [[Eduardo Toda y Güell]]|publisher= Art-Hanoi|language=en}} {{Source-attribution}}</ref> These cash coins are attributed to the [[Nguyễn lords]] during the reign of the ''Thế tông Hiếu vũ Hoàng đế'' (lord [[Nguyễn Phúc Khoát]]).<ref name="Tiền-và-hoạt-động-tiền-tệ-tại-Việt-Nam-trước-năm-1945-Kỳ-1">{{cite web|url= https://archives.org.vn/gioi-thieu-tai-lieu-nghiep-vu/tien-va-hoat-dong-tien-te-tai-viet-nam-truoc-nam-1945-ky-1.htm|title= Tiền và hoạt động tiền tệ tại Việt Nam trước năm 1945 (Kỳ 1: Tiền và hoạt động tiền tệ thời quân chủ Việt Nam).|date=27 March 2023|accessdate=19 May 2023|author= Nguyễn Thu Hoài|publisher= Trung tâm Lưu trữ quốc gia I (National Archives Nr. 1, Hanoi) - Cục Văn thư và Lưu trữ nhà nước (State Records And Archives Management Department Of Việt Nam).|language=vi}}</ref><ref>''[[Đại Nam thực lục]]'' (Tiền biên) - Quyển X (Thực lục về Thế tông Hiếu vũ Hoàng đế). (in [[Classical Chinese]]).</ref> == Nguyễn dynasty == In his 1882 book ''Annam and its Minor Currency'' ([[:File:Annam and its minor currency (Toda) from Art-Hanoi.pdf|pdf]]), the [[Spain|Spanish]] ([[Catalonia|Catalan]]) [[Egyptology|Egyptologist]] [[Eduardo Toda y Güell]] reported on the circulation of lead cash coins introduced during the [[Nguyễn dynasty]] with the inscriptions [[Gia Long Thông Bảo]] (嘉隆通寳), [[Thiệu Trị Thông Bảo]] (紹治通寳), and [[Tự Đức Thông Bảo]] (嗣德通寳).<ref name="Toda-the-Nguyen-Dynasty">{{cite web|url= https://art-hanoi.com/toda/20|title= XX. Chinese intervention in Tunquin, and the 阮 Nguyen Dynasty.|date=1882|access-date=19 August 2023|author= [[Eduardo Toda y Güell]]|publisher= Art-Hanoi|language=en}} {{Source-attribution}}</ref> Toda wrote that "Nearly every kind of metal has been used in Annam in the manufacture of coins, and there are now in circulation coins made of gold, silver, copper, zinc, and lead; and up to within a short time ago there were also coins made of iron".<ref name="Toda-Manufacture-of-Coins">{{cite web|url= https://art-hanoi.com/toda/06|title= VI. Manufacture of Coins.|date=1882|access-date=19 August 2023|author= [[Eduardo Toda y Güell]]|publisher= Art-Hanoi|language=en}} {{Source-attribution}}</ref> According to Toda, the [[Gia Long]] Emperor was the first monarch to issue lead cash coins and that the value of a lead cash coin was even lower than that of a [[zinc cash coin]], but that generally speaking Vietnamese people rarely used lead coins.<ref name="Toda-Manufacture-of-Coins"/> There were no laws that regulated the different standards of copper, zinc, and lead cash coins and their value was completely dependent on what market decided.<ref name="Toda-Manufacture-of-Coins"/> In international trade ports their price was dependent on the [[Mexican peso]].<ref name="Toda-Manufacture-of-Coins"/> There were 2 versions of the lead Gia Long Thông Bảo cash coin, one with a plain reverse and one with the characters ''Thất phần'' (七分).<ref name="Toda-the-Nguyen-Dynasty"/> The lead Thiệu Trị Thông Bảo is a small size cash coin with a plain reverse, cash coins of the same design were also made of copper and zinc.<ref name="Toda-the-Nguyen-Dynasty"/> Toda attributed 2 lead cash coins to the reign of the [[Tự Đức]] Emperor, one was a small size one that also made in zinc and copper and another one with the characters ''[[Hanoi|Hà Nội]]'' (河內) on its reverse side, indicating its place of production.<ref name="Toda-the-Nguyen-Dynasty"/> Toda reported that during the [[Lê Văn Khôi revolt]], the rebel forces under [[Lê Văn Khôi]] produced lead cash coins with the inscription Trị Nguyên Thông Bảo (治元通寳), these coins featured a [[Han dynasty coinage#Dots, crescents, circles, numbers, counting rods, Chinese characters, and other symbols appearing on coins|crescent and a dot on the right and left of the square central hole]] on their reverse sides.<ref name="Toda-The-Nguy-khoi-Rebellion-The-Nung-Rebellion-Doubtful-Coins"/> == Local cash coins of the Bakumatsu == During the [[Bakumatsu]] the [[Sendai Domain]], [[Echigo Province]], [[Awa Province (Tokushima)|Awa Province]], and the [[Yonezawa Domain]] produced lead coins.<ref>瀧澤武雄，西脇康『日本史小百科「貨幣」』東京堂出版、1999年. (in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]).</ref> === Sendai Domain === During the Bakumatsu the Sendai Domain produced lead cash coins using lead collected from the [[Hosokura mine]].<ref name="Hosokura-mine-lead-isotopes-and-Sendai-sen">{{cite web|url= https://www.imes.boj.or.jp/research/papers/japanese/00-J-01.pdf|title= 近世銭貨に関する理化学的研究.|date=2000|accessdate=19 August 2023|author= Saito Tsutomu (齋藤努), Takahashi Teruhiko (高橋照彦), and Yuuichi Nishikawa (西川裕)|publisher= Institute for Monetary and Economic Studies - [[Bank of Japan]]|language=ja}}</ref> The lead cash coins produced by the Sendai domain were square in shape and had the inscription ''Hosokura tō hyaku'' (細倉當百), the ''Hosokura tō hyaku'' is said to have been used to pay the salaries of craftsmen in the mine.<ref name="Japan-Money-1998">『日本の貨幣-収集の手引き-』　日本貨幣商協同組合、1998年, Entry on the Sendai Domain. (in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]).</ref> The reverse side of these cash coins contain a stylised character that is said to be the ''[[Huaya|kaō]]'' of [[Fujiwara no Hidehira]].<ref name="Japan-Money-1998"/> It seems almost certain that lead from the Hosokura mine was used, and the results of [[lead isotope]] ratio measurements support this.<ref name="Hosokura-mine-lead-isotopes-and-Sendai-sen"/> During this same period the Sendai Domain circlated a square [[iron cash coin]] with the inscription ''Sendai Tsūhō'' (仙臺通寳).<ref>滝沢武雄　『日本の貨幣の歴史』　吉川弘文館、1996年. (in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]).</ref> === Yonezawa Domain === The Yonezawa Domain issued lead cash coins known as ''Seisankyoku-ensen'' (生産局鉛銭), these were minted in the [[Dewa Province]], probably sometime around 1866.<ref name="Krause-and-Hartill-Yonezawa-Domain">Tracy L. Schmidt (editor); 2019. ''Standard Catalog of World Coins/2001-Date (14th edition).'' [[Krause Publications]], [[Stevens Point, Wisconsin|Stevens Point]], [[Wisconsin]], [[United States]]. #80-82. David Hartill; 2011. ''Early Japanese Coins.'' [[Gamlingay]], [[England]], [[United Kingdom]]. #6.37-6.38.</ref> At this time, the [[Samurai]] class of this domain found their occupation gone, which caused great distress for many of them.<ref name="Krause-and-Hartill-Yonezawa-Domain"/> A society to aid and supervision these samurai was formed under the local government, and these heavy lead coins were issued to these samurai as a form of government sponsored aid.<ref name="Krause-and-Hartill-Yonezawa-Domain"/> These cash coins were either oval or square and had the inscription ''Ka-nihyaku'' (價二百) written in [[regular script]], indicating that they had a nominal value of 200 ''[[Japanese mon (currency)|mon]]''.<ref name="Krause-and-Hartill-Yonezawa-Domain"/> The Inscription of this lead cash coin further includes 4 vertically written characters, on the right of the square central hole, indicating coin's weight in [[Japanese units of measurement|Japanese units]] reading ''Sanjūyon-monme'' (三十四匁, 34 ''monme'').<ref name="Krause-and-Hartill-Yonezawa-Domain"/> == Hoards of lead cash coins == {{See also|List of coin hoards in China|List of coin hoards in Vietnam}} * In December 1953, at the construction site of new buildings in the eastern suburbs of [[Guangzhou]], construction workers employed by at the Mayugang (孖鱼冈) new village construction site discovered a pile of lead Qianheng Zhongbao (乾亨重寳) cash coins, weighing as much as 20 [[Catty|catties]], was found buried in a small underground pit.<ref name="Kaogu-1953-1958-Guangzhou-lead-cash-coin-hoards">Mak Ying Ho (麦英豪) - ''Southern Han lead cash coins found in Guangzhou'' (广州发现南汉铅钱). - ''[[Kaogu]]'' (archaeological findings), issue #4, 1958 (考古通讯 4, 1958).</ref> No ancient tombs or other artifacts were found.<ref name="Kaogu-1953-1958-Guangzhou-lead-cash-coin-hoards"/> The construction workers took out the coins and sent them to the Municipal Cultural Management Committee for preservation.<ref name="Kaogu-1953-1958-Guangzhou-lead-cash-coin-hoards"/> This would prove the first discovery, as between December 1953 and 1958 a total of a total of 1200 catties worth of lead cash coins dated to the [[Southern Han]] period would be unearthed in Guangzhou.<ref name="Kaogu-1953-1958-Guangzhou-lead-cash-coin-hoards"/> * In 1980, when the Administrative Office of the General Office of the Guangdong [[Chinese Communist Party Provincial Standing Committee|Provincial Committee]] of the [[Communist Party of China]] was carrying out residential construction in Meihua Village (梅花村), [[Dongshan District, Guangzhou|Dongshan District]] (东山), [[Guangzhou]] City (广州市) in the [[Guangdong]] province, a four-eared black-glazed pot weighing about 20 kg was found 1.2 meters below the ground.<ref name="Guangzhou-lead-cash-coins-hoard-1980">Qiu Licheng (邱立诚) and Li Yifeng (李一峰) - ''Another Batch of Southern Han Lead Cash Coins Discovered in Dongshan, Guangzhou'' (广州东山又发现一批南汉铅钱) [[Kaogu]] (考古), 567-567, 1985. (in [[Mandarin Chinese]] using [[Simplified Chinese characters]]).</ref> The pot contained a batch of lead cash coins with the inscription Qianheng Zhongbao (乾亨重寳) dated to the [[Southern Han]] Kingdom.<ref name="Guangzhou-lead-cash-coins-hoard-1980"/> The lead cash coins were placed vertically and bonded together inside of the pot and all of them suffered from corrosion.<ref name="Guangzhou-lead-cash-coins-hoard-1980"/> All lead cash coins in the hoard seem to be divided into two specifications, one with a diameter of 2.5-2.6 cm, and the other with a diameter of 2.5-2.7 cm.<ref name="Guangzhou-lead-cash-coins-hoard-1980"/> The reverse sides of all these cash coins are blank.<ref name="Guangzhou-lead-cash-coins-hoard-1980"/> The thickness of the cash coins is uneven, and their casting quality is very poor.<ref name="Guangzhou-lead-cash-coins-hoard-1980"/> * In 2003, Ziquan Neihua (兹泉内化) copper-alloy coins and a number of lead cash coins were found in the ancient ruins of the [[Taklamakan Desert]] in [[Luopu County]], [[Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region]].<ref>Li Yinping (李吟屏) - ''Ziquan Neihua copper coins and large lead cash coins discovered in Luopu County, Xinjiang'' (新疆洛浦县发现兹泉内化铜钱及长方穿铅钱) - "China Numismatics" 2003 No. 2 (《中国钱币》2003年第2期: 39-39页共1页).</ref> == Presence of lead in copper-alloy cash coins == === Chinese cash coins === Research by the [[British Museum]] found that cash coins were always leaded, the usage of [[leaded copper]] was found to be present in both bronze and brass alloys.<ref name="Cao-Jin-Cash-coin-casting">{{cite web|url= https://www.academia.edu/25740794|title= Mints and Minting in Late Imperial China Technology Organisation and Problems.|date=2015|accessdate=18 August 2023|author= Cao Jin (曹晉)|publisher= [[Academia.edu]]|language=en}}</ref> Though the research indicated that the percentages of lead was remarkably lower in the brass alloys from the early 16th century onwards.<ref name="Cao-Jin-Cash-coin-casting"/> An analysis of the lead content in Chinese cash coins from history revealed that the lead content typically ranges from 10% to 20%, with the highest recorded lead percentage being found in 12th and 13th century bronze cash coins standing at 30% (which occurred during a time period of severe copper scarcity).<ref name="Cao-Jin-Cash-coin-casting"/> Meanwhile, the percentage of lead found in brass cash coins was on average 5%, typically ranging from 2% to 8%.<ref name="Cao-Jin-Cash-coin-casting"/><ref>Michael Cowell, [[Joe Cribb]], Sheridan Bowman and Yvonne Shashoua. ''The Chinese Cash: Composition and Production'' in [[Helen Wang|Wang, Helen]] et al (ed.) (2005), p. 63.</ref> [[Cao Jin]] (曹晉), a researcher at the Department of Chinese and Korean Studies, [[Tübingen University]], in her paper ''Mints and Minting in Late Imperial China: Technology, Organisation and Problems'' pointed out that there were mainly 2 reasons for this, one of which was economic and the other technical.<ref name="Cao-Jin-Cash-coin-casting"/> She noted that the addition of lead was cheaper than other metals such as tin, zinc, or using more copper as lead was relatively cheap compared to other metals.<ref name="Cao-Jin-Cash-coin-casting"/> Furthermore, she noted that the technical reason was because of the fact that the addition of lead to copper-alloys boosted the fluidity of the melt, which facilitated the manufacturing process and qualitatively helped to improve the end result.<ref name="Cao-Jin-Cash-coin-casting"/> Cao Jin further argued that a lower percentage of lead during later periods can be attributed to the fact that only 3% lead is needed in a copper-alloy for a desired level of fluidity, concluding that the presence of high percentages of lead can mostly be attributed to economic reasons for the earlier cash coins and for technical reasons during later periods when copper scarcity was less of an issue.<ref name="Cao-Jin-Cash-coin-casting"/> === Japanese cash coins === Lead was used for the mintage of Japanese cash coins, this lead was sometimes domestically supplied and sometimes imported.<ref name="Lead-in-Japanese-coins-2016">{{cite web|url= https://rekihaku.repo.nii.ac.jp/records/956|title= A Study on the Mintage and the Supply of Its Raw Materials in Japan（2. Applications for Provenance Studies / [Coins]） - 日本における銭貨生産と原料調達（2. 歴史資料産地決定法への適用 / [銭貨]）.|date=1 April 2016|accessdate=19 August 2023|author= Takahashi, Teruhiko (高橋, 照彦)|publisher= National Museum of Japanese History Repository (国立歴史民俗博物館学術情報リポジトリ)|language=en}}</ref> During the ancient period until around the 8th century the lead was mostly collected from the [[Naganobori mine]] and its neighbouring mines in the [[Nagato Province]].<ref name="Lead-in-Japanese-coins-2016"/> A limited quantity of lead was also collected from the [[Buzen Province]], although it was rarely used.<ref name="Lead-in-Japanese-coins-2016"/> During the [[Medieval Japan|medieval period]] the majority of lead came from China, while Chinese lead was mostly used until the 14th century, Japanese lead would supersede its usage and Chinese lead would almost completely disappear, though small amounts of non-Chinese foreign lead would also be used.<ref name="Lead-in-Japanese-coins-2016"/> During the [[Edo period]]. Japanese lead was mostly used, in the latter half of the 17th century most lead used in the alloys of cash coins came from the [[Taishu mine]] on [[Tsushima island]].<ref name="Lead-in-Japanese-coins-2016"/> A century later lead would be supplied from multiple places across Japan and eventually the mints would come to depend on the [[Tōhoku region]] to supply the lead used in the production of cash coins.<ref name="Lead-in-Japanese-coins-2016"/> == Notes == {{Notelist}} === Catalogue numbers === * '''Hartill''' = ''Cast Chinese Coins'' by David Hartill. [[Trafford]], [[United Kingdom]]: [[Trafford Publishing]]. September 22, 2005. {{ISBN|978-1412054669}}. * '''FD''' = ''Fisher's Ding'' (丁), George A. Fisher's copy of [[Ding Fubao]]'s (丁福保) original work catalogue, 1980, 251 pages. * '''Schjøth''' = "Chinese Currency, Currency of the Far East - A Comprehensive Text Chou Dynasty, 1122 B.C.–255 B.C. Through Ch'ing Dynasty 1644 A.D.–1911 A.D." by Fredrik Schjøth and Virgil Hancock, [[Oslo|Oslow]], [[Norway]], 1929. * '''Hartill-Qing''' = ''Qing Cash'' (清代貨幣) by David Hartill, [[Royal Numismatic Society]] (2003). * '''Krause''' = C.L. Krause and C. Mishler, ''[[Standard Catalog of World Coins]]'', [[Krause Publications]], 1979. == References == {{Reflist}} == Sources == * {{cite book |last1=Hartill |first1=David |title=Cast Chinese Coins: A Historical Catalogue |date=2005 |language=en}} == External links == {{Commons category-inline|Lead cash coins}} {{Chinese cash coin}} {{Japanese cash coin}} {{Vietnamese cash coin}} [[:Category:Cash coins]] [[:Category:Chinese numismatics]] .

Standard reference templates

Usually recurring sources

2023

December 2023.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2023|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2023|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= December 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

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November 2023.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2023|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2023|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= November 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2023|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

October 2023.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2023|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2023|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= October 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2023|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

September 2023.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2023|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2023|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= September 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2023|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

August 2023.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2023|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2023|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= August 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2023|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

July 2023.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2023|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2023|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= July 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2023|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

June 2023.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2023|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2023|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= June 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2023|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

May 2023.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= May 2023|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= May 2023|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= May 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= May 2023|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

April 2023.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2023|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2023|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= April 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2023|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

March 2023.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2023|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2023|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= March 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2023|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

February 2023.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2023|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2023|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= February 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2023|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

January 2023.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2023|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2023|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= January 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2023|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

2022

December 2022.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= December 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

November 2022.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= November 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

October 2022.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= October 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

September 2022.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= September 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

August 2022.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= August 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

July 2022.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= July 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

June 2022.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= June 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

May 2022.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= May 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= May 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= May 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= May 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

April 2022.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= April 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

March 2022.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= March 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

February 2022.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= February 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

January 2022.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= January 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

2021

December 2021.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= December 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

November 2021.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= November 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

October 2021.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= October 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

September 2021.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= September 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

August 2021.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= August 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

July 2021.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= July 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

June 2021.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= June 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

May 2021.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= May 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= May 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= May 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= May 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

April 2021.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= April 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

February 2021.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= March 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

February 2021.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= February 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

January 2021.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= January 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

2020

December 2020.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= December 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2020|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

October 2020.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= October 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2020|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

November 2020.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= November 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2020|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

September 2020.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= September 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2020|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

August 2020.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= August 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

<ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2020|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

July 2020.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= July 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

June 2020.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= June 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

May 2020.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= May 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= May 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, ~~except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.~~

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate=May 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= May 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

April 2020.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate=April 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= April 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

March 2020.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= March 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>

February 2020.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= February 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>

January 2020.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= January 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>

2019

December 2019.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2019|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= December 2019|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>

To use

<ref name="HoreshQing">{{cite web|url= https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-981-10-0622-7_54-1|title= The Monetary System of China under the Qing Dynasty.|date=28 September 2018|accessdate=29 July 2019|author= [[Niv Horesh]]|publisher= [[Springer Nature|Springer Link]]|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="HoreshQing"/>

<ref name="PrimalQing">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/chinesecoins.html#qing_dynasty_coins|title= Chinese coins – 中國錢幣 - Qing (Ch'ing) Dynasty (1644-1911)|date=16 November 2016|accessdate=30 June 2017|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="PrimalQing"/>

<ref name="PrimaltrekKingOfQingDynastyCoins">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/blog/2013/01/08/the-king-of-qing-dynasty-coins/|title=The King of Qing Dynasty Coins.|date=8 January 2013|accessdate=8 January 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="PrimaltrekKingOfQingDynastyCoins"/>

<ref name="CambridgeInflation">{{cite web|url= https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-the-school-of-oriental-and-african-studies/article/hsienfeng-inflation/54A8F1ADDC871CC18F4DCFA828730DEB|title= The Hsien-Fêng Inflation (Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 December 2009).|date=October 1958|accessdate=28 July 2019|author= Jerome Ch'ên|publisher= [[SOAS University of London]]|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="CambridgeInflation"/>

<ref name="Brill2015">[https://www.academia.edu/28400259/_Silver_Copper_Rice_and_Debt_Monetary_Policy_and_Office_Selling_in_China_during_the_Taiping_Rebellion_in_Money_in_Asia_1200_1900_Small_Currencies_in_Social_and_Political_Contexts_ed._by_Jane_Kate_Leonard_and_Ulrich_Theobald_Leiden_Brill_2015_343-395 “Silver, Copper, Rice, and Debt: Monetary Policy and Office Selling in China during the Taiping Rebellion,” in Money in Asia (1200–1900): Small Currencies in Social and Political Contexts, ed.] by Jane Kate Leonard and Ulrich Theobald, [[Leiden]]: Brill, 2015, 343-395.</ref>
- <ref name="Brill2015"/>

<ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsDebinMa">{{cite web|url= http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/41940/1/WP159.pdf|title= Money and Monetary System in China in the 19th-20th Century: An Overview. (Working Papers No. 159/12)|date=January 2012|accessdate=26 January 2020|author= Debin Ma|publisher= Department of Economic History, [[London School of Economics]]|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsDebinMa"/>

<ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsXunYan">{{cite web|url= http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/3307/1/Yan_In_Search_of_Power.pdf|title= In Search of Power and Credibility - Essays on Chinese Monetary History (1851-1845).|date=March 2015|accessdate=8 February 2020|author= Xun Yan|publisher= Department of Economic History, [[London School of Economics|London School of Economics and Political Science]]||language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsXunYan"/>.

Sources to use

https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=%E9%89%9B%E9%8C%A2&btnG=

https://art-hanoi.com/toda/06 (Public domain).
- <ref name="Toda-Manufacture-of-Coins">{{cite web|url= https://art-hanoi.com/toda/06|title= VI. Manufacture of Coins.|date=1882|access-date=19 August 2023|author= [[Eduardo Toda y Güell]]|publisher= Art-Hanoi|language=en}} {{Source-attribution}}</ref>
  - Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 20:56, 19 August 2023 (UTC) .

https://art-hanoi.com/toda/20 (Public domain).
- <ref name="Toda-Manufacture-of-Coins">{{cite web|url= https://art-hanoi.com/toda/20|title= XX. Chinese intervention in Tunquin, and the 阮 Nguyen Dynasty.|date=1882|access-date=19 August 2023|author= [[Eduardo Toda y Güell]]|publisher= Art-Hanoi|language=en}} {{Source-attribution}}</ref>
  - Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 20:56, 19 August 2023 (UTC) .

https://art-hanoi.com/toda/21 (Public domain).
- <ref name="Toda-The-Nguy-khoi-Rebellion-The-Nung-Rebellion-Doubtful-Coins">{{cite web|url= https://art-hanoi.com/toda/21|title= XXI. The Nguy-khoi Rebellion. The Nung Rebellion. Doubtful Coins. 1600 to date.|date=1882|access-date=19 August 2023|author= [[Eduardo Toda y Güell]]|publisher= Art-Hanoi|language=en}} {{Source-attribution}}</ref>
  - Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 20:56, 19 August 2023 (UTC) .

http://chinesecoins.lyq.dk/othermaterials.html
- <ref name="Lars-Bo-Christensen-Other-Materials">{{cite web|url= http://chinesecoins.lyq.dk/othermaterials.html|title= Coins made of other materials than bronze.|date=26 April 2014|access-date=17 August 2023|author= Lars Bo Christensen (李博 - 丹麥)|publisher= Ancient Chinese Coins (中華古錢幣)|language=en}}</ref>
  - Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 21:01, 17 August 2023 (UTC)

Japanese sources

https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=%E9%89%9B%E9%8A%AD&btnG=

越後田塚鉛銭

阿州鉛銭

米沢藩
- 生産局鉛銭

Cut sections

Kaiyuan Tongbao#Huichang era Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins| Vietnamese cash.

== Hoards of lead cash coins ==

Initially there was 0 (zero) lead cash coin hoards listed, then found one (1) in Kaogu.

Styles of calligraphy on cash coins

== Inscriptions and denominations ==

=== Styles of calligraphy on cash coins ===

List of calligraphic styles and scripts on Chinese cash coins:^[1]

Chinese calligraphy
Calligraphic style	Example image
Seal script (篆書)
Clerical script (隸書)
Regular script (楷書)
Running script (行書)
Grass script (草書)
Slender gold script (瘦金體)
Jade tendon seal script (玉筋篆)
Non-Chinese scripts
Kuśiññe script
Old Uyghur alphabet
Khitan large script
Tangut script
'Phags-pa script
Manchu script
Arabic script

Alternative layout

Styles of calligraphy on cash coins

List of calligraphic styles and scripts on Chinese cash coins:^[1]

Chinese calligraphy		Non-Chinese scripts
Calligraphic style	Example image	Script	Example image
Seal script (篆書)		Kuśiññe script
Clerical script (隸書)		Old Uyghur alphabet
Regular script (楷書)		Khitan large script
Running script (行書)		Tangut script
Grass script (草書)		'Phags-pa script
Slender gold script (瘦金體)		Manchu script
Jade tendon seal script (玉筋篆)		Arabic script

Styles of calligraphy on cash coins (References & Sources)

Styles of calligraphy on cash coins (References)

^ ^a ^b Lars Bo Christensen (李博 - 丹麥) (26 April 2014). "Styles of calligraphy on coins. - Examples of the five major styles of calligraphy: zhuanshu, lishu, kaishu, xingshu and caoshu as well as two special styles". Ancient Chinese Coins (中華古錢幣). Retrieved 17 August 2023.

Styles of calligraphy on cash coins (Sources)

https://chinesecoins.lyq.dk/calligraphy.html
- <ref name="Styles-of-cash-coin-calligraphy-2014">{{cite web|url= https://chinesecoins.lyq.dk/calligraphy.html|title= Styles of calligraphy on coins. - Examples of the five major styles of calligraphy: zhuanshu, lishu, kaishu, xingshu and caoshu as well as two special styles.|date=26 April 2014|accessdate=17 August 2023|author= Lars Bo Christensen (李博 - 丹麥)|publisher= Ancient Chinese Coins (中華古錢幣)|language=en}}</ref>
  - Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 15:10, 17 August 2023 (UTC) .

Song Dynasty mintage figures

(CUT IMAGE).

== Mintage figures and money supply ==

Bronze cash coins

Bronze cash coins were produced is large amounts in the prior era of the Song, this can be partially explained due to population growth as the population grew from at least 32.000.000 people in 961 to at most 120.000.000 in 1193.^[1] For example, during the reign of Emperor Taizong 800.000 strings (or 800.000.000 cash coins) were cast,^[2] while during the reign of Emperor Yingzong the annual production rose to 3.000.000 strings.^[3]

By the time of the Jingkang incident the government of the Song dynasty had accumulated 98.000.000 strings, and that 30.000.000 strings circulated among people.^[4] This indicated that while a large number of cash coins were being produced during the Northern Song dynasty period, only some of them reached general circulation among the people.^[4] Even if the number of cash coins in strings was only around 800 per string, the total number of Song dynasty cash coins that was produced by the end of Song dynasty period would be around 90.000.000.000.^[5] However, an even larger number of cash coins was likely cast due to the fact that the currency of the Song dynasty had become the universal currency of the Far East at the time and a large number of cash coins was exported.^[6]

Meanwhile, the annual output of cash coins had greatly declined during the Southern Song dynasty period reaching only an average of 200.000 strings per year and often far less, this was due to a combination of both high minting costs and high mining costs.^[7] The copper shortage was so bad that it became a frequent event for the emperor to issue edicts demanding that private citizens would deliver all their copper-alloy utensils and other possessions to the mints.^[7] The copper shortage also meant that, compared to the cash coins of the Northern Song dynasty period, the Southern Song coinage contained 25% less copper.^[7]

The success of Northern Song dynasty cash coins domestically and internationally made it difficult, even at peak production, to produce a sufficient number of coins for the market, and to restore the elasticity of the money supply the government issued paper money to secure the payment of taxes.^[6]

Iron cash coins

Iron cash coins played an important role during the Song dynasty period and approximately 900.000.000 iron cash coins were produced annually.^[8] In 1080 there were 26 mints, 9 of them produced iron cash coins.^[8]

Most iron cash coins circulated in the south alongside bronze cash coins, but during the Southern Song dynasty period their circulation was supplemented with paper money alleviating the issues caused by the regional copper shortage.^[8] Meaning that while iron cash coins still circulated there during the Southern Song period, they were no longer as important as they were during the Northern Song period.^[8]

References and sources

^ Chao, Kang: Man and Land in Chinese History. Stanford University Press (1986). Page: 41.
^ von Glahn 1996, p. 49.
^ Jen, David: Chinese Cash, Identification and Price Guide. - Krause Publications, US. 2000. Page: 54.
^ ^a ^b von Glahn 1996, p. 247.
^ von Glahn 1996, p. 247-248.
^ ^a ^b von Glahn 1996, p. 248.
^ ^a ^b ^c von Glahn 1996, p. 50-51.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Yang, Lien-sheng: Money and Credit in China, a Short History. Harvard University Press. Cambridge (1971). Page: 28.

Sources.

von Glahn, Richard (1996). Fountain of Fortune. Money and Monetary Policy in China, 1000-1700. University of California Press.

Xuanbian qian (旋邊錢) & Huoqi qian (火漆錢)

Xuanbian qian (旋邊錢), literally "lathed �rim cash coins", was a popular name (folk name) used during the Ming dynasty period to refer to cash coins produced in Yunnan and in Beijing, at the Baoyuanju Mint (寶源局), under the reign of the Jiajing Emperor that were polished using lathes known as xuàn chē (鏇車).^[1] These cash coins were stable, had a yellowish colour that contemporary sources describe as "beautiful", and round and smooth rims.^[1]

Xuanbian qian (旋邊錢), literally "lathed-rim cash coins", was a popular name (folk name) used during the Ming dynasty period to refer to cash coins produced in Yunnan and in Beijing, at the Baoyuanju Mint (寶源局), under the reign of the Jiajing Emperor that were polished using lathes known as xuàn chē (鏇車).^[1]^[2] These cash coins were stable, had a yellowish colour that contemporary sources describe as "beautiful", and round and smooth rims.^[1]^[2]'

Huoqi qian (火漆錢), literally "fire lacquer coins", refers to a Ming dynasty period type of cash coins that were produced by having a special lacquer applied to the coins during finishing aspect of the manufacturing process.^[3]^[1] The only evidence of their existence is mentioned in the Tiangong Kaiwu.^[1] A number of surviving late Ming dynasty cash coins are found to have certain amounts of black lacquer substance that is found at the lower parts between characters.^[1] This lacquer tends to make the design of the coins look a bit cleaner and was possibly only applied to enhance the beauty of the coins and as an anti-counterfeiting measure.^[1] As the alloys of Huoqi qian was different from unlacquered cash coins in circulation at the time, the lacquer may have served as a coating that protected the coin from corrosion.^[1] During circulation, the lacquer on the raised parts of the coin would have likely rubbed off.^[4]^[1]

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j Cao Jin (曹晉) (2015). "Mints and Minting in Late Imperial China Technology Organisation and Problems". Academia.edu. Retrieved 13 August 2023.
^ ^a ^b Xu Jie (徐階) ‘Qing tingzhi Baoyuanju zhuqian shu’ (請停止寶源局鑄錢疏) [Memorial of asking to stop the casting of Baoyuanju mint], in Ming jingshi wenbian (明經世文編), p. 2551.
^ Sun, E-tu Zen, and Sun Shiou-chuan. T’ien-Kung K’ai-Wu: Chinese Technology in the Seventeenth Century, by Sung Ying-Hsing. (University Park and London: [[Pennsylvania State University Press]], 1966).
^ Michael Cowell, Joe Cribb, Sheridan Bowman and Yvonne Shashoua. The Chinese Cash: Composition and Production in Wang, Helen et al (ed.) (2005), p. 63.

Coin hoards expansions

1976

1976 (Mainland China)

List of 1976 coin hoards in Mainland China
Date of discovery	Place of discovery	Image	Content	Long description of the find and notes	Date (if known)	Current location (if known)
25 October 1976	Puhechuan (蒲河川), Zhongtai Commune, Lingtai County, Gansu Province		Lead cake coins with foreign Inscriptions.	On 25 October 1976, members of the Zhongtai Commune in the Lingtai County, Gansu Province discovered a batch of lead cakes with foreign Inscriptions, while working on construction at a farm.^[1] A local county museum immediately sent people to clean the lead cake coins.^[1] The lead cake were buried inside of a platform close to a mountain, at a depth of about 1 meter underground, surrounded by black and red soil.^[1] In the pit, where the lead cake was unearthed, there were scattered fist-sized bluestones, about 33 cm thick, with the stones facing east and west.^[1] Four rows of lead cakes were placed in the tile, divided into upper and lower layers.^[1] The lead cake coins were nearly arranged.^[1]

1979

1979 (Mainland China)

List of 1979 coin hoards in Mainland China
Date of discovery	Place of discovery	Image	Content	Long description of the find and notes	Date (if known)	Current location (if known)
October 1979	Jiangjia Village, Sanjian Town, Lushunkou District, Dalian, Liaoning Province		3 currency cellars dating to the Warring States period containing around 400 Yan (匽) knife coins.	In 1979, 3 currency cellars were uncovered in Jiangjia Village, Lushunkou District, Dalian, Liaoning Province by local villagers.^[2] A number of knife coins with the inscription "匽" (Yan) were discovered 50 cm below the surface.^[2] The hoard contains about 400 pieces of knife coins with the Chinese character "匽", which can be divided into four types according to the shape and character composition.^[2] Type 1: the back is rounded, the blade is curved, the head of the knife is wide, slightly straight, the blade is wide, and the 2 vertical lines on the handle do not extend to the blade.^[2] The outer strokes of the character "匽" (Yan) on the obverse Inscription (legend) are round and drooping, the inner strokes are curved in a short oblique arc, and the character "日" (Ri) in the middle is extremely round.^[2] There are "eight" characters on the reverse side.^[2] The overall length of Type 1 is 13.8, the width of the blade is 2 cm, and they weigh 14.7 grams.^[2]	Warring States period^[2]

1980

1980 (Mainland China)

List of 1980 coin hoards in Mainland China
Date of discovery	Place of discovery	Image	Content	Long description of the find and notes	Date (if known)	Current location (if known)
July 1980	Beiheng Lane, Guiyang, Guizhou Province		Qing dynasty period silver sycees.	In July 1980, residents of Beiheng Lane, Zhonghua North Road, Guiyang City dug up a batch of silver ingots when they were digging the foundation on the side of a building.^[3] While digging a batch of silver ingots were uncovered, and the silver ingots were immediately brought to the police station.^[3] This hoard of unearthed silver ingots was found inside of a pot found at a depth of 0.3 meters below the surface.^[3] Based on this, it is speculated that this is a batch of silver ingots that was originally stored in a cellar.^[3] This hoard contains a total of 31 silver ingots, with a total weight of 41.2 catties.^[3] The shapes of the sycees range with some of them being shaped like a horseshoe, a rectangular girdle, a square bucket or being circular in shape.^[3]	Qing dynasty period^[3]

1982

1982 (Mainland China)

List of 1982 coin hoards in Mainland China
Date of discovery	Place of discovery	Image	Content	Long description of the find and notes	Date (if known)	Current location (if known)
Autumn 1982	Tieshijing Village, Xiaodong, Shiwangxu, Yangchun County, Guangdong Province		Over 10 stone Qianheng Zhongbao (乾亨重寳) cash coins.	In 1982, the cultural relics census team of Yangchun County found more than ten Qianheng Zhongbao (乾亨重寳) stone cash coins (石質錢) of the Southern Han Dynasty in the Tieshijing Village.^[4] The Guangdong Provincial Museum immediately sent personnel to investigate and conduct a small-scale trial excavation.^[4]	Southern Han dynasty period^[4]

1983

1983 (Mainland China)

List of 1983 coin hoards in Mainland China
Date of discovery	Place of discovery	Image	Content	Long description of the find and notes	Date (if known)	Current location (if known)
22 April 1983	Shijiazhuang, Hebei Province		48,899 Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins weighing 375 catties.	On 22 April 1983, Jiang Shuguang (蒋曙光), a member of the Nangaoying Brigade of Taoyuan Commune in the suburbs of Shijiazhuang, and others dug up a gray urn.^[5] The urn was found 1.5 meters in the ground.^[5] The pottery urn was broken when it was unearthed, and the urn was filled with Tang dynasty period cash coins.^[5] This hoard of cash coins weighed 375 catties, and contained nearly 50,000 individual pieces.^[5] The Shijiazhuang City Cultural Relics Preservation Office (石家庄市文物保管所对其进行) sorted them out.^[5] They described a total of 48,899 pieces of Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins, which can be divided into two types.^[5] Type I was counted at 33,093 pieces.^[5]

1984

1984 (Mainland China)

List of 1984 coin hoards in Mainland China
Date of discovery	Place of discovery	Image	Content	Long description of the find and notes	Date (if known)	Current location (if known)
1984	Hexian County, Anhui Province		A number of ancient coins.	In 1984, a hoard of coins was discovered in a cellar in Hexian County, Anhui Province.^[6]
July 1984	Xiayu Village, Linglongshan Township, Lin'an County, Zhejiang Province		2360 coins weighing 17 kg.	In July 1984, while excavating soil from the brick and tile factory in Xiayu Village, Linglongshan Township, 10 kilometers southwest of Lin'an County, a cellar of copper-alloy cash coins was found.^[7] The copper-alloy coins were stored at a depth of 1.3 meters below the surface.^[7] Due to serious corrosion, all the coins were lumped together.^[7] After three times of sorting and processing, the archeologists counted a total of 2360 cash coins, weighing 17 kg.^[7] Of these coins, 1049 can be identified, 2 of which are Wu Zhu cash coins dated to the Han dynasty.^[7]	Yuan dynasty period^[7]

2003

2003 (Mainland China)

List of 2003 coin hoards in Mainland China
Date of discovery	Place of discovery	Image	Content	Long description of the find and notes	Date (if known)	Current location (if known)
2003	Suburbs of Jinan, Shandong Province		150 kilograms of ancient cash coins.	In the winter of 2003, a batch of ancient coins were unearthed in the suburbs of Jinan, Shandong Province.^[8] Among the about 150 kilograms of ancient cash coins seen (a lot of rusted and knotted together, keeping the shape of money strings), Song dynasty period cash coins accounted for the vast majority. The latest Inscription found in the hoard is the Chunxi Yuanbao (淳熙元寳), issued during the reign of Emperor Xiaozong of the Southern Song Dynasty, which was folded into two coins with "Eleven" (十一) on the back, meaning that this cash coin was cast in 1184.	Sometime after 1184.^[8]
2003	Luopu County, Hotan Prefecture, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region		Copper-alloy and lead coins.	In 2003, Ziquan Neihua (兹泉内化) copper-alloy coins and a number of lead cash coins were found in the ancient ruins of the Taklamakan Desert in Luopu County, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region.^[9]

2005

2005 (Mainland China)

List of 2005 coin hoards in Mainland China
Date of discovery	Place of discovery	Image	Content	Long description of the find and notes	Date (if known)	Current location (if known)
2005	Zhangjichang Village, Liuyangbao Township, Yanchi County, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region		Lead cash coins dated to the Western Han dynasty period.	In 2005, lead cash coins were found in the Zhangjichang Village in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, a small rural village with only a hundred people located at the foot of the Great Wall.^[10]

Coin hoards expansions (References)

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Liu Dezhen (刘得祯) - Lead cakes with foreign inscriptions discovered in Lingtai, Gansu (甘肃灵台发现外国铭文铅饼) - Kaogu 6, 1977 (考古 6, 1977).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Wang Sizhou (王嗣洲) - Three Warring States Currency Cellars in Dalian (大连市三处战国货币窖藏) - "Kaogu", No. 2, 1990 (《考古》1990年第2期).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Song Shikun (宋世坤) - Cellars of Qing Dynasty period silver ingots in Beiheng Lane, Guiyang (贵阳北横巷清代银锭窖藏) - Kaogu, 670-672, 1985 (考古, 670-672, 1985).
^ ^a ^b ^c Zhu Feisu (朱非素) - Southern Han Dynasty Qian Fan Discovered in Yangchun County, Guangdong Province (广东阳春县发现南汉钱范). - Kaogu, 381-382, 1984 (考古, 381-382, 1984).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Li Shengwu (李胜伍) - Coins of the Tang Dynasty discovered in the suburbs of Shijiazhuang (石家庄市郊发现唐代窖藏钱币) - Kaogu, 382-382, 1985 (考古, 382-382, 1985).
^ Zhang Hongming (张宏明) - Copper coins found in ancient cellars in Hexian County, Anhui Province (安徽省和县发现古代窖藏铜钱) - "Kaogu", No. 12, 1984 (《考古》1984年第12期。).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Qian Pingfu (钱平甫) - Yuan Dynasty period copper coin-alloy cash coin cellar discovered in Lin'an County, Zhejiang Province (浙江临安县发现元代铜钱窖藏) - Kaogu, 479-480, 1987 (考古, 479-480, 1987).
^ ^a ^b Yang Jun (杨君) - Examples of lead cash coins in Jin Dynasty coinages (金朝钱币窖藏中之铅钱举隅) - "Coin Discovery and Research in Northern China" Academic Symposium (1), 2005 (中国北方地区钱币发现与研究” 学术研讨会专集 (一), 2005).
^ Li Yinping (李吟屏) - Ziquan Neihua copper coins and large lead cash coins discovered in Luopu County, Xinjiang (新疆洛浦县发现兹泉内化铜钱及长方穿铅钱) - "China Numismatics" 2003 No. 2 (《中国钱币》2003年第2期: 39-39页共1页).
^ Zhang Zhichao (张智超) - Exploration of Western Han Dynasty lead cash coins unearthed in Yanchi County, Ningxia (宁夏盐池县出土西汉铅钱探索) - "Xinjiang Numismatics" 2005 No. 3 (《新疆钱币》2005年第3期: 44-56页共13页).

https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=related:2AjrLXn4OjEJ:scholar.google.com/&scioq=&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5

Yuan expansion

http://www.charm.ru/coins/china/muqingtongbao.shtml

Sun Chung Hui - "A study of the temple coins of the Yuan Dynasty", China Numismatics, 1986-1, p. 43-48.

Glossary additions

Inscriptions

Inscriptions

Liang (兩) and Zhu (銖), weight measures used as the main obverse inscriptions on ancient Chinese cash coins until the introduction of the Bao (寳), meaning "precious" or "treasure", inscription in the year 621.^[1]
Tongbao (通寳), literally "circulating treasure", is an inscription first introduced with the Kaiyuan Tongbao (開元通寳) series of cash coins during the Tang dynasty period in 621 and was used as the most common inscription on cash coins for more than 1300 years and occupies a dominant position in the monetary history of China.^[2]^[3] Prior to the introduction of the Kaiyuan Tongbao, cash coins typically featured the weight of the coin as (a part of) their inscription, but as cash coins were now valued based on government regulation rather than their weight as a form of commodity money this Inscription superseded the prior Wu Zhu (五銖) weight-based Inscription.^[2]
Yuanbao (元寳), literally "inaugural treasure", "first treasure", "primal treasure", "original treasure", or "round treasure", originated as a misreading of the Inscription Kaiyuan Tongbao where the inscription was read clockwise as "Kaitong Yuanbao" (開通元寳).^[2]^[4] Due to a naming taboo the term "Yuanbao" was phased out from cash coin inscriptions due to a naming taboo as the founder of the Ming dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang had the word "Yuan" (元) in his name. The term "Yuanbao" is also an alternative name for boat-shaped sycees.^[5]
Zhongbao (重寳), literally "heavy treasure", an inscription typically used on high denomination cash coins, initially introduced in 758 with the Qianyuan Zhongbao (乾元重寳) nominally valued at 10 ordinary cash coins.^[6]
Nianhao (年號), sometimes translated as "reign title" or "reign era", refers to the period title used by Chinese monarchs, these period titles typically consisted of an auspicious phrase (such as Immeasurable Splendour, Heavenly Favour, Abundant Happiness, or United Government) and was used to describe some or all years of the reign of an individual emperor.^[1] After the year 621, cash coins typically had 4 character obverse Inscriptions consisting of "[reign era] (Tong/Yuan/Zhong)bao", reading as "[年號](通/元/重)寳".^[1] Not all era names were considered to be useable for cash coin Inscriptions, causing them to substitute the nianhao with a dynastic title, consisting of the name of the dynasty in conjunction with a honorific adjective, for example Hanyuan Tongbao (漢元通寳) by the Southern Han dynasty, Tangguo Tongbao (唐國通寳) by the Southern Tang dynasty, and Huangsong Tongbao (皇宋通寳) during the Northern Song dynasty.^[1] From the Ming dynasty onwards, there was only a single nianhao used per reign, so the nianhao is often used synonymously as the name of the Emperor, for example Yongle Emperor, Jiajing Emperor, Kangxi Emperor, Jiaqing Emperor, Etc.^[1] Hence, only a single inscription was typically used during their reigns (Yongle Tongbao, Jiajing Tongbao, Kangxi Tongbao, Jiaqing Tongbao, Etc.).^[1]

Ming Dynasty

Guangbei.

Glossary additions (References)

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Hartill 2005, p. iii.
^ ^a ^b ^c Lin Xuda (林序達) and Dan Keimei (段啓明) ．Dictionary of ancient Chinese cultural knowledge (中國古代文化知識辭典)．- Nanchang (南昌)：Jiangxi Education Press (江西教育出版社)，2001：872-872. (in Mandarin Chinese).
^ "Bronze Kaiyuan tongbao coin". Explore Highlights. British Museum. The characters Kai yuan mean 'new beginning', while tong bao means 'circulating treasure' or 'coin'.
^ Louis, François. Chinese Coins (PDF). p. 226.
^ Ulrich Theobald (25 May 2016). "Silver Ingots as Money in Premodern China. Silver ingots (yinding 銀錠, yinkuai 銀塊, yinliang 銀兩) were one of the common currencies in imperial China. Since the Han period 漢 (206 BCE-220 CE) they served as a means of payment, but were not very widespread in contrast to the standard type of money, copper cash". Chinaknowledge - An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art. Retrieved 20 August 2023. Silver ingots were cast in the shape of small "boats" called baoyuan 元寶 or baoyin 寶銀. Still today, this shape is used as a symbol for wealth and prosperity, and seen in New Year's prints, as well as used for lavish wedding gifts of precious metals.
^ Hartill 2005, p. 109.

Redirects

#REDIRECT [[Qianqian]]

[Styles-of-cash-coin-calligraphy-2014-1] Lars Bo Christensen (李博 - 丹麥) (26 April 2014). "Styles of calligraphy on coins. - Examples of the five major styles of calligraphy: zhuanshu, lishu, kaishu, xingshu and caoshu as well as two special styles". Ancient Chinese Coins (中華古錢幣). Retrieved 17 August 2023.

[2] Chao, Kang: Man and Land in Chinese History. Stanford University Press (1986). Page: 41.

[FOOTNOTEvon_Glahn199649-3] von Glahn 1996, p. 49.

[4] Jen, David: Chinese Cash, Identification and Price Guide. - Krause Publications, US. 2000. Page: 54.

[FOOTNOTEvon_Glahn1996247-5] von Glahn 1996, p. 247.

[FOOTNOTEvon_Glahn1996247-248-6] von Glahn 1996, p. 247-248.

[FOOTNOTEvon_Glahn1996248-7] von Glahn 1996, p. 248.

[FOOTNOTEvon_Glahn199650-51-8] von Glahn 1996, p. 50-51.

[Yang-Lien-sheng-page-28-9] Yang, Lien-sheng: Money and Credit in China, a Short History. Harvard University Press. Cambridge (1971). Page: 28.

[Cao-Jin-Cash-coin-casting-10] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j Cao Jin (曹晉) (2015). "Mints and Minting in Late Imperial China Technology Organisation and Problems". Academia.edu. Retrieved 13 August 2023.

[Xu-Jie-Xuanbian-qian-11] Xu Jie (徐階) ‘Qing tingzhi Baoyuanju zhuqian shu’ (請停止寶源局鑄錢疏) [Memorial of asking to stop the casting of Baoyuanju mint], in Ming jingshi wenbian (明經世文編), p. 2551.

[12] Sun, E-tu Zen, and Sun Shiou-chuan. T’ien-Kung K’ai-Wu: Chinese Technology in the Seventeenth Century, by Sung Ying-Hsing. (University Park and London: [[Pennsylvania State University Press]], 1966).

[13] Michael Cowell, Joe Cribb, Sheridan Bowman and Yvonne Shashoua. The Chinese Cash: Composition and Production in Wang, Helen et al (ed.) (2005), p. 63.

[Liu-Dezhen-1977-Kaogu-14] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Liu Dezhen (刘得祯) - Lead cakes with foreign inscriptions discovered in Lingtai, Gansu (甘肃灵台发现外国铭文铅饼) - Kaogu 6, 1977 (考古 6, 1977).

[Wang-Sizhou-Kaogu-1990-Jiangjia-Coin-Hoard-15] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Wang Sizhou (王嗣洲) - Three Warring States Currency Cellars in Dalian (大连市三处战国货币窖藏) - "Kaogu", No. 2, 1990 (《考古》1990年第2期).

[Song-Shikun-Kaogu-1985-16] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Song Shikun (宋世坤) - Cellars of Qing Dynasty period silver ingots in Beiheng Lane, Guiyang (贵阳北横巷清代银锭窖藏) - Kaogu, 670-672, 1985 (考古, 670-672, 1985).

[Zhu-Feisu-Kaogu-1984-Yangchun-County-Coin-Hoard-17] Zhu Feisu (朱非素) - Southern Han Dynasty Qian Fan Discovered in Yangchun County, Guangdong Province (广东阳春县发现南汉钱范). - Kaogu, 381-382, 1984 (考古, 381-382, 1984).

[Li-Shengwu-1985-Shijiazhuang-Hoard-18] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Li Shengwu (李胜伍) - Coins of the Tang Dynasty discovered in the suburbs of Shijiazhuang (石家庄市郊发现唐代窖藏钱币) - Kaogu, 382-382, 1985 (考古, 382-382, 1985).

[Zhang-Hongming-Kaogu-12-1984-19] Zhang Hongming (张宏明) - Copper coins found in ancient cellars in Hexian County, Anhui Province (安徽省和县发现古代窖藏铜钱) - "Kaogu", No. 12, 1984 (《考古》1984年第12期。).

[Kaogu-Xiayu-Coin-Hoard-July-1984-20] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Qian Pingfu (钱平甫) - Yuan Dynasty period copper coin-alloy cash coin cellar discovered in Lin'an County, Zhejiang Province (浙江临安县发现元代铜钱窖藏) - Kaogu, 479-480, 1987 (考古, 479-480, 1987).

[Yang-Jun-2005-21] Yang Jun (杨君) - Examples of lead cash coins in Jin Dynasty coinages (金朝钱币窖藏中之铅钱举隅) - "Coin Discovery and Research in Northern China" Academic Symposium (1), 2005 (中国北方地区钱币发现与研究” 学术研讨会专集 (一), 2005).

[22] Li Yinping (李吟屏) - Ziquan Neihua copper coins and large lead cash coins discovered in Luopu County, Xinjiang (新疆洛浦县发现兹泉内化铜钱及长方穿铅钱) - "China Numismatics" 2003 No. 2 (《中国钱币》2003年第2期: 39-39页共1页).

[23] Zhang Zhichao (张智超) - Exploration of Western Han Dynasty lead cash coins unearthed in Yanchi County, Ningxia (宁夏盐池县出土西汉铅钱探索) - "Xinjiang Numismatics" 2005 No. 3 (《新疆钱币》2005年第3期: 44-56页共13页).

[FOOTNOTEHartill2005iii-24] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f Hartill 2005, p. iii.

[Dictionary-of-ancient-Chinese-cultural-knowledge-Tongbai-25] Lin Xuda (林序達) and Dan Keimei (段啓明) ．Dictionary of ancient Chinese cultural knowledge (中國古代文化知識辭典)．- Nanchang (南昌)：Jiangxi Education Press (江西教育出版社)，2001：872-872. (in Mandarin Chinese).

[26] "Bronze Kaiyuan tongbao coin". Explore Highlights. British Museum. The characters Kai yuan mean 'new beginning', while tong bao means 'circulating treasure' or 'coin'.

[27] Louis, François. Chinese Coins (PDF). p. 226.

[ChinaKnowledge-Silver-Ingots-as-Money-in-Premodern-China-28] Ulrich Theobald (25 May 2016). "Silver Ingots as Money in Premodern China. Silver ingots (yinding 銀錠, yinkuai 銀塊, yinliang 銀兩) were one of the common currencies in imperial China. Since the Han period 漢 (206 BCE-220 CE) they served as a means of payment, but were not very widespread in contrast to the standard type of money, copper cash". Chinaknowledge - An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art. Retrieved 20 August 2023. Silver ingots were cast in the shape of small "boats" called baoyuan 元寶 or baoyin 寶銀. Still today, this shape is used as a symbol for wealth and prosperity, and seen in New Year's prints, as well as used for lavish wedding gifts of precious metals.

[FOOTNOTEHartill2005109-29] Hartill 2005, p. 109.

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Other Wikipedia articles

Styles of calligraphy on cash coins

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Styles of calligraphy on cash coins

Styles of calligraphy on cash coins (References & Sources)

Styles of calligraphy on cash coins (References)

Styles of calligraphy on cash coins (Sources)

Song Dynasty mintage figures

Bronze cash coins

Iron cash coins

References and sources

Xuanbian qian (旋邊錢) & Huoqi qian (火漆錢)

Coin hoards expansions

1976

1976 (Mainland China)

1979

1979 (Mainland China)

1980

1980 (Mainland China)

1982

1982 (Mainland China)

1983

1983 (Mainland China)

1984

1984 (Mainland China)

2003

2003 (Mainland China)

2005

2005 (Mainland China)

Coin hoards expansions (References)

Yuan expansion

Glossary additions

Inscriptions

Ming Dynasty

Glossary additions (References)

Redirects