User:Donald Trung/Goryeo coinage

This page serves as "the editing history" of the English Wikipedia article Goryeo coinage and is preserved for attribution.

https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Goryeo_coinage&oldid=919196963
- Published. --Donald Trung (talk) 11:16, 2 October 2019 (UTC) .

Original draft

'''Goryeo coinage''' ([[Hanja]]: 高麗-貨幣; [[Hangul]]: 고려의 화폐) refers to the different types of coinages which were attempted to become the main currency of [[Goryeo]]. During most of its history the Kingdom of Goryeo did not have a money-based economy but most goods were traded using [[barter]]. However, the government had attempted several times to introduce various types of coinages include coins based on [[Cash (Chinese coin)|Chinese cash coins]], silver vases known as ''ŭnbyŏng'' (銀瓶, 은병), and coins shaped like [[arrowheads]]. These efforts to introduce coinage to Goryeo were all ultimately unsuccessful and the [[Korea]]n economy would remain to be based on barter until several centuries into the [[Joseon]] period in the 17th century. == Earliest coinages == While in ancient Korea various items like [[clam shell]]s, iron, and [[precious metal]]s were all traded as a [[medium of exchange]], but the primary forms of currency during this era used in bartering were [[grain]] and [[cloth]].<ref name="NIKHCurrency">{{cite web|url= http://contents.history.go.kr/front/eng/tz/view.do?levelId=tz_b25|title= Korean Currency.|date=2019|accessdate=29 September 2019|author= Not listed|publisher= [[National Institute of Korean History]]|language=en}}</ref> During the pre-monetary times anything related to food and clothing was used as a medium of exchange as well as a method to measure the value of products.<ref name="NIKHCurrency"/> The types of grains most commonly used for bartering were [[rice]], [[barley]], [[bean]]s, and millet. Of these commodities millet white rice was valued a lot more than regular rice. The most common forms of cloth as currency in ancient Korea were [[hemp]], [[ramie]], and [[silk]].<ref name="NIKHCurrency"/> Other goods were calculated as having a certain value that was in relation to fundamental commodities such as grain, rice, and cloth. As a result of the ancient barter-based economy some modern elderly [[South Korea]]ns still use the phrase "Go to the market and sell some rice" which evokes the idea of trading rice for other products.<ref name="NIKHCurrency"/> It would not be until the 17th century that coinage fully replaced the barter system throughout the entire [[Korean peninsula]]. Hemp was first the most common form of cloth currency but later cotton cloth (or ''pohwa'') would become the dominant form of cloth money.<ref name="AncientHistoryEncyclopedia">{{cite web|url= https://www.ancient.eu/Korean_Coinage/#ci_related_content_outer_wrapper|title= Ancient Korean Coinage.|date=25 September 2016|accessdate=1 October 2019|author= [https://www.ancient.eu/user/markzcartwright/ Mark Cartwright]|publisher= [[Ancient History Encyclopedia]]|language=en}}</ref> Since the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea|Three Kingdoms]] period, silk was considered to be one of the most highly valued medium of exchange.<ref name="NIKHCurrency"/> The first definitive record of currency use in Korea appears in the [[Goryeo]] period (918–1392).<ref>''A New History of Korea'' by Ki-baik Lee ([[Harvard University Press]], 1984; p. 122).</ref> Early in that period, even though some imported [[Ancient Chinese coinage|Chinese currency]] from the [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] and [[Song dynasty|Song dynasties]] were in circulation, commodity currency such as grain and linen continued in general circulation. In the 10th and 11th centuries, iron and bronze coins were issued, but saw limited circulation among the common people.<ref name="ArmstrongEconomics">{{cite web|url= https://www.armstrongeconomics.com/research/monetary-history-of-the-world/by-country/korea/|title= Monetary History of Korea.|date=10 April 2012|accessdate=8 June 2017|work= Armstrong Economics (Researching the past to predict the future) |language=en}}</ref> As in modern times [[Xin dynasty]] era ''hwacheon'' (貨泉, 화천) cash have been unearthed in tombs in modern Korea there is minor evidence that these coins might've been used for the [[international trade]] of the time.<ref name="KoreaNetHwacheon">{{cite web|url= http://www.korea.net/NewsFocus/Culture/view?articleId=132070|title= 2,000-year-old Chinese coins unearthed in Gwangju.|date=21 January 2016|accessdate=30 September 2019|author= Lee Hana|publisher= [[Korea.net]]|language=en}}</ref><ref name="PrimaltrekKoreanTomb">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/blog/2016/01/23/xin-dynasty-coins-found-in-korean-tomb/|title=Xin Dynasty Coins Found in Korean Tomb.|date=23 January 2016|accessdate=5 September 2017|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> In 2018 [[Wu Zhu]] (五銖, 오수) cash coins, known as ''oshujeon'' in Korea, were unearthed in the [[North Gyeongsang]] province further confirming an ancient trade relation with China.<ref name="GlobalTimesNorthGyeongsangWuZhu">{{cite web|url= http://www.globaltimes.cn/content/1105807.shtml|title= Archeologists discover ancient Chinese Wuzhu coins in Korean tomb in North Gyeongsang Province, S.Korea.|date=6 June 2018|accessdate=1 October 2019|author= Not listed|publisher= [[Global Times]]|language=en}}</ref> The first known metallic coinage known to have circulated in ancient Korea was Chinese [[knife money]],<ref name="AncientHistoryEncyclopedia"/> this type of Chinese coin circulated in the [[Yan (state)|Kingdom of Yan]] during the [[Warring States period]],<ref> ZME Science [http://www.zmescience.com/other/chinese-money-28032011/ You should know about Chinese knife money.] Last updated on March 28th, 2011 at 1:18 pm by Mihai Andrei. Retrieved: 12 July 2017. </ref> and was brought to the Korean peninsula by Chinese settlers and in modern times specimens of knife money have been excavated in the provinces of [[Pyeongan]] and [[Jeolla]].<ref name="AncientHistoryEncyclopedia"/> During the Chinese [[Han dynasty]] Wu Zhu cash coins which were known as ''oshujeon'' (五銖錢, 오수전) in [[Korean language|Korean]] were brought to the Korean peninsula following the [[Han conquest of Gojoseon]] in 108 BC. The ''oshujeon'' would continue to circulate in the later kingdoms of [[Goguryeo]] and [[Silla]] of the Korea Three Kingdoms period up to the 10th century CE.<ref name="AncientHistoryEncyclopedia"/> Today ''oshujeon'' are most commonly found in the tombs of the former [[Lelang Commandery]].<ref name="AncientHistoryEncyclopedia"/> Around this time period, the Goryeo government issued a new monetary policy regarding the minting and distribution of cash coins. This decree was implemented to both strengthen royal authority and to regulate the national finances of Korea.<ref name="NIKHCurrency"/> == Cash coins == === ''Geonwon Jungbo'' cash coins === The first cash coins that were allegedly minted in Korea occurred under the reign of [[Seongjong of Goryeo|King Seongjong]] in the year Seongjong 15 (996 AD). It bore the inscription "Geonwon Jungbo" (乾元重寶, 건원중보) on its obverse and "Dongguk" (東國, 동국), which could be translated as "the country of the East", on its reverse. <ref name="SogouBaikeGeonwonJungbo">{{cite web|url= https://baike.sogou.com/m/v44424178.htm|title= 乾元重宝背东国.|date=2019|accessdate=30 September 2019|author= Sogou Baike (搜狗百科)|publisher= [[Sogou]] (搜狗公司)|language=zh-cn}}</ref> This series of cash coins bore the same inscription as the Tang dynasty Qianyuan Zhongbao (乾元重寶) cash coins, but the text "Dongguk" was added to its reverse to indicate that the coin was from a country east of China. The ''Geonwon Jungbo'' were manufactured in both [[bronze]] and iron.<ref name="SogouBaikeGeonwonJungbo"/> The attribution of the ''Geonwon Jungbo'' to Seongjong is controversial. This is because no ancient Korean historical references mention this series of cash coins and the ''Geonwon Jungbo'' did not appear in any coin catalogues until the year 1938 when a Japanese coin catalogue named ''East Asian Money'' (東亞錢志) attributed it as being an early Korean issue.<ref name="SogouBaikeGeonwonJungbo"/> After its initial attribution notable Chinese numismatist [[Ding Fubao]] quoted this book in one of his works in 1940.<ref name="SogouBaikeGeonwonJungbo"/> It is speculated by some Chinese numismatists that the attribution of this series of cash coins to Goryeo may be because of cash coins with similar inscriptions being listed in the "Qian Zhi", a Chinese coin catalogue published in the year 1149 (Shaoxing 19) during the [[Southern Song dynasty]] as this catalogue listed not only Chinese cash coins but also Japanese, Vietnamese, Korean, and [[Southeast Asia]]n coins.<ref name="SogouBaikeGeonwonJungbo"/> Because of where these cash coins are usually found in the modern era and due to the lack of historical records, it is sometimes attributed to the ancient Korean kingdom of [[Balhae]].<ref name="SogouBaikeGeonwonJungbo"/> But no historical records exist from Balhae in regard to its coinage so the exact origins of the ''Geonwon Jungbo'' remain a mystery.<ref name="SogouBaikeGeonwonJungbo"/> Because of these findings many mainstream Chinese numismatists do not attribute the ''Geonwon Jungbo'' to Goryeo. Other arguments set forth is that "Dongguk" is an abbreviation for "Haidong Shengguo", one of the names of Balhae, the fact that Balhae was a major exporter of copper to the Tang dynasty and had a very prosperous economy and a developed culture, this meant that Balhae might have issued its own coinage as it had an extremely well developed copper melting industry, furthermore Balhae used the same calendar as the Tang dynasty so when the Tang dynasty entered the Qianyuan era Balhae entered the Geonwon era.<ref name="SogouBaikeGeonwonJungbo"/> During its heyday Balhae was complete imitation of the Tang dynasty with its [[Three Departments and Six Ministries]] system,<ref name="Dillon2016">{{cite book|author=Michael Dillon|title=Encyclopedia of Chinese History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kp6iDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT95|date=1 December 2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-81715-4|page=95}}</ref> Balhae was strongly influenced by the Tang on political, economic, cultural, and military levels and the country was commonly referred to as "Dongguk" because of its geographical location.<ref name="SogouBaikeGeonwonJungbo"/> Meanwhile it is very unlikely that Goryeo would’ve adopted the Tang dynasty Qianyuan Zhongbao inscription as by its time this series of cash coins came to be associated with the inflation and political instability of the late Tang period.<ref name="SogouBaikeGeonwonJungbo"/> Another hypothesis claims that the Geonwon Jungbo were either a commemorative issue or a military issue akin to the much later [[Qianlong Tongbao]] cash coins issued during the [[Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa]] campaign which had the characters "安南" ([[Vietnam|Annam]]) inscribed on its reverse.<ref name="SogouBaikeGeonwonJungbo"/> In the modern era these cash coins are mostly unearthed in the Chinese province of [[Liaoning]] and [[North Korea]]. Some of them being unearthed in the city of [[Kaiyuan, Liaoning]].<ref name="SogouBaikeGeonwonJungbo"/> The iron cash coins are more commonly found than the bronze ones. Currently only 10 pieces of the ''Geonwon Jungbo'' are known to exist making it an extremely valued object among [[East Asia]]n coin collectors.<ref name="SogouBaikeGeonwonJungbo"/> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Inscription !! [[Hangul]] !! [[McCune–Reischauer]] !! [[Revised Romanisation]] !! Image |- | 乾元重寶 東國 || 건원중보 동국 || Kŏn Wŏn Jung Bo Dong Guk || Geon Won Jung Bo Dong Guk || |} ==== Coinage of King Sukjong of Goryeo ==== King [[Sukjong of Goryeo]] created a new monetary system based on round copper-alloy coins with square holes as well as the ''ŭnbyŏng'' ({{linktext|銀|瓶}}, {{lang|ko-Hang|은병}}) shaped like the [[Korean peninsula]]. The coins were produced bearing the inscriptions {{linktext|東|國}} (동국/''Dong guk'' or [[Names of Korea#Sobriquets for Korea|"Eastern Country"]]), {{linktext|海|東}} (해동/''hae dong'' or "[[Sea of Japan|Eastern Sea]]"), and {{linktext|三|韓}} (삼한/''[[Samhan]]'').<ref name="primaltrek">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/koreancoins.html|title=Korean Coins – 韓國錢幣 - History of Korean Coinage|date=16 November 2016|accessdate=5 June 2017|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> {{Quote box | quote = "There is nothing more important than coinage, which may benefit our country and enrich the people … It is only now that we have issued decrees about the minting of metal coinage." | source = - Goryeosa (History of the Goryeo Dynasty), article on money from the Sikhwaji (Treatise on Food and Money), 1102 (Year 7 of King Sukjong of Goryeo). | width = 75% | align = center }} An extremely rare variant of the ''Samhan Tongbo'' ({{lang|ko-Hang|삼한통보}}, 三韓通寶) cash coin exists that bears the character {{linktext|叁}} written in "official script" instead of {{linktext|三}}, of which only 2 have currently been found.<ref name="primaltrek"/> A new government department, the Directorate of the Mint was created, this government agency in charge of regulating the newly established currency system, and the ''Dongguk Tongbo'' (東國通寶) was the first of the these new Korean cash coins to be minted.<ref name="NIKHCurrency"/> In order to strengthen the monetary policy of Goryeo, government officials were encouraged to receive their salaries in cash coins and it was hoped that if they would spend the new currency at local taverns that this would encourage their circulation to become widespread throughout Korea.<ref name="NIKHCurrency"/> However, the new cash coin's value would prove to be rather unreliable in the marketplace and it was considered to be impractical for purchasing and trading goods. Because of this perception the new cash coins of Goryeo did not find any wide usage and the government of Goryeo did not try to natively establish a money-based economy afterwards.<ref name="NIKHCurrency"/> There is evidence to suggest that the Chinese used to extensively export [[Cash (Chinese coin)|Chinese cash coins]] to Korea for local circulation.<ref name="AncientHistoryEncyclopedia"/> The [[Sinan shipwreck]], which was a ship from [[Ningbo]] that sank off the Korean coast in the year 1323,<ref>Richard von Glahn, "The Ningbo-Hakata Merchant Network and the Reorientation of East Asian Maritime Trade, 1150-1350," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 74:2 (2014), 272, 279.</ref> carried some 8,000 [[String of cash coins (currency unit)|strings of cash coins]],<ref>Amino Yoshihiko, Alan Christy (trans.), Rethinking Japanese History, Center for Japanese Studies, University of Michigan (2012), 147.</ref> which weighed about 26,775 kg.<ref name="AncientHistoryEncyclopedia"/> === List of Goryeo cash coins by inscription === {| class="wikitable" |- ! Inscription !! [[Hangul]] !! [[McCune–Reischauer]] !! [[Revised Romanisation]] !! [[Chinese script styles|Scripts]] !! Date of casting !! Diameter (in millimeter) !! Weight (in grams) !! Image |- | 東國通寶 || 동국통보 || Dong kuk T'ong Bo || Dong Guk Tong Bo || [[Seal script]] (篆書), [[Clerical script]] (隸書), [[Regular script]] (楷書), and [[Semi-cursive script|Running script]] (行書) || 998–1097 AD || 23 ~ 25 || 2.4 ~ 3 || [[File:동국통보 (東國通寶) National Museum of Korea.jpg|75px]] |- | 東國重寶 || 동국중보 || Dong Kuk Chung Bo || Dong Guk Jung Bo || Regular script (楷書) || 998–1097 AD || 24 ~ 25 || 2.8 ~ 3.6{{efn|Specimens weighing as much 4.2 grams have been recorded.}} || [[File:東国重寳 - Dr. Luke Roberts 01.jpg|75px]] |- | 三韓通寶 || 삼한통보 || Sam Han T'ong Bo || Sam Han Tong Bo || Seal script (篆書), Clerical script (隸書) and Running script (行書) || 1097–1105 AD || 23 ~ 25 || 2.6 ~ 3.4{{efn|Specimens weighing as little 2.1 grams have been recorded.}} || [[File:Leon de Rosny-Les Coreens-Apercu-ethnographique-et-historique-fig3.png|75px]] |- | 叁韓通寶 || 삼한통보 || Sam Han T'ong Bo || Sam Han Tong Bo || "Official Script" || 1097–1105 AD || || || |- | 三韓重寶 || 삼한중보 || Sam Han Chung Bo || Sam Han Jung Bo || Regular script (楷書) || 1097–1105 AD || 25 || 4 || [[File:三韓重寳 - Dr. Luke Roberts 01.jpg|75px]] |- | 海東通寶 || 해동통보 || Hae Dong T'ong Bo || Hae Dong Tong Bo || Seal script (篆書), Clerical script (隸書), Regular script (楷書), and Running script (行書) || 1097–1105 AD || 25 || 2.9 || [[File:海東通寳 - Dr. Luke Roberts 01.jpg|75px]] |- | 海東重寶 || 해동중보 || Hae Dong Chung Bo || Hae Dong Jung Bo || Regular script (楷書) || 1097–1105 AD || 25 || 3.1 ~ 4 || |- | 海東元寶{{efn|These cash coins are extremely rare and the only recent specimens of the ''Haedong Wonbo'' (海東元寶) that have been excavated were found in an area near [[Kaesong]], [[North Korea]].}} || 해동원보 || Hae Dong Wŏn Bo || Hae Dong Won Bo || Regular script (楷書) || 1097–1105 AD || || || |} == Ŭnbyŏng == The '''ŭnbyŏng''' (銀瓶, 은병), or ''hwalgu'', were silver vases that were shaped like the [[Korean peninsula]] and were widely used during the Goryeo period, they primarily circulated among the aristocracy.<ref name="ArmstrongEconomics"/> These ŭnbyŏng produced from the year 1101 and were engraved with an official state seal to mark them as a legitimate currency which was valid throughout Goryeo. The ŭnbyŏng weighed around one ''[[Korean units#Weight|Kŭn]]'' (斤, {{lang|ko-Hang|근}}) which is roughly equal to 600 grams, this made them very useful for paying for large transactions.<ref name="AncientHistoryEncyclopedia"/> Historians suggest that the ŭnbyŏng primarily used by the aristocratic classes and that were also often involved in the bribing of government officials.<ref name="AncientHistoryEncyclopedia"/> In the year 1282 the government enacted a law that pegged the value of one ŭnbyŏng at between 2,700 and 3,400 litres of rice.<ref name="AncientHistoryEncyclopedia"/> But regardless of the fact that this currency was highly impractical for paying for low value items, the ŭnbyŏng would continue to be used during the next two centuries.<ref name="AncientHistoryEncyclopedia"/> During the reign of [[Chungnyeol of Goryeo]] the government had permitted the circulation of rough or broken pieces of silver.<ref name="AncientHistoryEncyclopedia"/> By the year 1331 the ŭnbyŏng had completely disappeared from circulation. No specimens of the ŭnbyŏng are known to have survived to the modern era.<ref name="AncientHistoryEncyclopedia"/> == Arrow coins == In the year 1464, [[Sejo of Joseon|King Sejo]] had introduced a new form of currency known as the "arrow coin" (箭幣; 전폐, ''chŏn p'ye''). This currency was shaped like an [[arrowhead]] which allowed it to be used as a [[medium of exchange]] during times of peace and as a weapon when the country was fighting another war.<ref name="primaltrek"/> The royal instructions regarding the "arrow coin" and how it should be circulated can be translated as the following excerpt:<ref>[[Google Books]] - [https://books.google.nl/books?id=qhzRAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA58&lpg=PA58&dq=korean+arrowhead+coin&source=bl&ots=ZiSpO5zTkT&sig=RPrsZL-FobHzwYsTaxQ69JV28iM&hl=en&ei=rgqmTcvyK6LA0QHspPHnCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false Transactions of the Korea Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Volume 4, Part 2] - [[Royal Asiatic Society]] of Great Britain and Ireland. Korea Branch, [[Seoul]]. 1913 - Korea. Retrieved: 29 September 2019.</ref> {{Quote box | quote ="Different moneys were used in different reigns but each one suits its time. The arrow coin, though never used by the ancients, will surely prove useful to a warlike country and we see no reason why it should not be used." | source = - Mun Heun Pi Ko (文猷備考, 문유비고) | width = 50% | align = center }} The blade of the "arrow coin" resembled a leaf of a [[willow tree]] and its stem was inscribed with the text ''P'albang T'onghwa'' (八方通寶; 팔방통보, which could be translated as either "currency in eight directions" or "eight directions universal money") this text indicated that the "arrow coin" was [[legal tender]] throughout Korea.<ref name="primaltrek"/> The arrowhead had a length of 55 millimeters long and its stem was an additional 52 millimeters making the "arrow coin" 107 millimeters long. 1 "arrow coin" was nominally worth 4 pieces of Joseon era paper money.<ref name="primaltrek"/> The new currency did not receive the support of the Korean people causing the failure of yet another attempt to establish a money-based economy in Korea to fail. No surviving specimens of the Korean "arrow coin" ave ever been discovered.<ref name="primaltrek"/> == Notes == {{Notelist}} == References == {{Reflist}} {{Commonscat|Coins of Goryeo}} {{Historical currencies of Korea}} {{Goryeo topics}} {{Korean cash coin}} [[:Category:Medieval currencies]] [[:Category:Currencies of Korea]] .

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<ref>[[Korea Minting and Security Printing Corporation]] - [http://www.koreamint.com/goods/detail.do?gno=10070&cate=1857 Samhantongbo Dangbaekjeon Gold medal] - Retrieved: 29 September 2019. (in [[Korean language|Korean]]).</ref>

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<ref name="PrimaltrekKoreanTomb">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/blog/2016/01/23/xin-dynasty-coins-found-in-korean-tomb/|title=Xin Dynasty Coins Found in Korean Tomb.|date=23 January 2016|accessdate=5 September 2017|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>

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<ref name="KoreaNetHwacheon">{{cite web|url= http://www.korea.net/NewsFocus/Culture/view?articleId=132070|title= 2,000-year-old Chinese coins unearthed in Gwangju.|date=21 January 2016|accessdate=30 September 2019|author= Lee Hana|publisher= [[Korea.net]]|language=en}}</ref>

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April 2019.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2019|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="ChinaKnowledge">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate=April 2019|author= Ulrich Theobald|publisher= [[Chinaknowledge]].de|language=en}}</ref>

March 2019.

<ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2019|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

<ref name="ChinaKnowledge">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate=March 2019|author= Ulrich Theobald|publisher= [[Chinaknowledge]].de|language=en}}</ref>

June 2017.

<ref name="primaltrek">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/koreancoins.html|title=Korean Coins – 韓國錢幣 - History of Korean Coinage|date=16 November 2016|accessdate=5 June 2017|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="primaltrek"/>

To use

<ref name="ChinaKnowledgePaperMoney">{{cite web|url= http://chinaknowledge.de/History/Terms/papermoney.html|title= Paper Money in Premodern China.|date=10 May 2016|accessdate=27 March 2019|author= Ulrich Theobald|publisher= [[Chinaknowledge]]|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="ChinaKnowledgePaperMoney"/>

<ref name="QingPaperMoney">{{cite web|url= http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Terms/money-qing-baochao.html|title= Qing Period Paper Money.|date=13 April 2016|accessdate=27 March 2019|author= Ulrich Theobald|publisher= [[Chinaknowledge]].de|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="QingPaperMoney"/>

<ref name="SandrockForeignBanknotes1">{{cite web|url= http://thecurrencycollector.com/pdfs/Foreign_Banks_in_China_Part-I.pdf|title= THE FOREIGN BANKS IN CHINA, PART I - EARLY IMPERIAL ISSUES (1850-1900) by John E. Sandrock - The Opening of China to the Outside World.|date=1997|accessdate=1 April 2019|author= John E. Sandrock|publisher= The Currency Collector.|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="SandrockForeignBanknotes1"/>

<ref name="SandrockForeignBanknotes2">{{cite web|url= http://thecurrencycollector.com/pdfs/Foreign_Banks_in_China_Part-II.pdf|title=FOREIGN BANKS IN CHINA, Part II - IMPERIAL CHINESE ISSUES (1900-1911) by John E. Sandrock.|date=1997|accessdate=10 April 2019|author= John E. Sandrock|publisher= The Currency Collector.|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="SandrockForeignBanknotes2"/>

<ref name="SandrockCopperCashNotes">{{cite web|url= http://thecurrencycollector.com/pdfs/Ching_Dynasty_Copper_Cash_Notes_-_Part_II.pdf|title=IMPERIAL CHINESE CURRENCY OF THE TAI'PING REBELLION - Part II - CH'ING DYNASTY COPPER CASH NOTES by John E. Sandrock.|date=1997|accessdate=20 April 2019|author= John E. Sandrock|publisher= The Currency Collector.|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="SandrockCopperCashNotes"/>

<ref name="SandrockSilverTaelNotes">{{cite web|url= http://thecurrencycollector.com/pdfs/Ching_Dynasty_Silver_Tael_Notes_-_Part_III.pdf|title=IMPERIAL CHINESE CURRENCY OF THE TAI'PING REBELLION - PART III - CH'ING DYNASTY SILVER TAEL NOTES by John E. Sandrock.|date=1997|accessdate=29 June 2019|author= John E. Sandrock|publisher= The Currency Collector.|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="SandrockSilverTaelNotes"/>

<ref name="CambridgeInflation">{{cite web|url= https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-the-school-of-oriental-and-african-studies/article/hsienfeng-inflation/54A8F1ADDC871CC18F4DCFA828730DEB|title= The Hsien-Fêng Inflation (Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 December 2009).|date=October 1958|accessdate=28 July 2019|author= Jerome Ch'ên|publisher= [[SOAS University of London]]|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="CambridgeInflation"/>

<ref name="Brill2015">[https://www.academia.edu/28400259/_Silver_Copper_Rice_and_Debt_Monetary_Policy_and_Office_Selling_in_China_during_the_Taiping_Rebellion_in_Money_in_Asia_1200_1900_Small_Currencies_in_Social_and_Political_Contexts_ed._by_Jane_Kate_Leonard_and_Ulrich_Theobald_Leiden_Brill_2015_343-395 “Silver, Copper, Rice, and Debt: Monetary Policy and Office Selling in China during the Taiping Rebellion,” in Money in Asia (1200–1900): Small Currencies in Social and Political Contexts, ed.] by Jane Kate Leonard and Ulrich Theobald, [[Leiden]]: Brill, 2015, 343-395.</ref>
- <ref name="Brill2015"/>

<ref name="HoreshQing">{{cite web|url= https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-981-10-0622-7_54-1|title= The Monetary System of China under the Qing Dynasty.|date=28 September 2018|accessdate=29 July 2019|author= [[Niv Horesh]]|publisher= [[Springer Nature|Springer Link]]|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="HoreshQing"/>

<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeQianzhuang">{{cite web|url= http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Terms/qianzhuang.html|title= ''qianzhuang'' 錢莊, private banks.|date=24 November 2015|accessdate=9 August 2019|author= Ulrich Theobald|publisher= [[Chinaknowledge]].de|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="ChinaKnowledgeQianzhuang"/>

<ref name="WangYanfenRiskControl">{{cite web|url= http://www.cscanada.net/index.php/ibm/article/view/10849|title= The Risk Control of Qianzhuang.|date=26 December 2018 |accessdate=16 September 2019|author= Wang Yanfen, Doctoral student. School of Economics, Central University of Finance and Economics, [[Beijing]], [[China]]. (Received 16 September 2018; accepted 22 November 2018) - [http://www.cscanada.net/index.php/ibm/article/view/10849/pdf .pdf]|publisher= Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture and Canadian Research and Development Centre of Sciences and Cultures|language=en}}</ref>
- <ref name="WangYanfenRiskControl"/>

<ref name="FEEHyperinflationOrigins1988">{{cite web|url= https://fee.org/articles/origins-of-the-chinese-hyperinflation/|title= Origins of the Chinese Hyperinflation.|date=1 September 1988|accessdate=19 September 2019|author= Mr. Habegger is a student at the University of Colorado in Boulder. He was a summer intern at FEE in 1986.|publisher= [[Foundation for Economic Education]] (FEE)|language=en}}</ref>
- * <ref name="FEEHyperinflationOrigins1988"/>

Wikidata link

https://m.wikidata.org/wiki/Q16183980
- Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 11:15, 2 October 2019 (UTC) .

Redirects

#REDIRECT [[Goryeo coinage]]