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Image of Claude Bernard, the father of modern physiology


Physiology (/ˌfɪziˈɒlədʒi/; from Ancient Greek φύσις (physis) 'nature, origin' and -λογία (-logia) 'study of'[1]) is the scientific study of functions and mechanisms in a living system.[2][3] As a sub-discipline of biology, physiology focuses on how organisms, organ systems, individual organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out the chemical and physical functions in a living system.[4] According to the classes of organisms, the field can be divided into medical physiology, animal physiology, plant physiology, cell physiology, and comparative physiology.[4]

Central to physiological functioning are biophysical and biochemical processes, homeostatic control mechanisms, and communication between cells.[5] Physiological state is the condition of normal function, while pathological state refers to abnormal conditions, including human diseases.

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine is awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for exceptional scientific achievements in physiology related to the field of medicine.

History

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Ancient Egypt

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The use of practical medicine traces its roots back to archaic times where papyri about injuries started to be written. One of them was the Edwin Smith Papyrus, which may be dated as early as c 3000 BCE to c 2500 BCE. Attributed to Imhotep, a physician and an administrator in the construction of pyramids who tended the workers’ injuries and wrote his knowledge on human physiology on the papyrus.[6] Is a 15 feet long paper with writing on both sides consisting of 22 columns or nearly 500 lines of text. The text contains 48 illustrative cases dealing with various traumatic and accidental injuries to the head, face, neck, arms, chest, shoulder, and spinal column, in that order. Each case is arranged in a logical, quite modern fashion including a descriptive heading, results of examination, diagnosis, and treatment.[7][6]

Classical Era

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Outside of Western tradition, early forms of physiology or anatomy can be reconstructed as having been present at around the same time in China,[8] India[9]and elsewhere. Hippocrates incorporated his belief system called the theory of humours, which consisted of four basic substance: earth, water, air and fire. Each substance is known for having a corresponding humour: black bile, phlegm, blood and yellow bile, respectively. Hippocrates also noted some emotional connections to the four humours, which Claudius Galenus would later expand on. The critical thinking of Aristotle and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece.Like Hippocrates, Aristotle took to the humoral theory of disease, which also consisted of four primary qualities in life: hot, cold, wet and dry.[10] Claudius Galenus (c. 130–200 AD), known as Galen of Pergamum, was the first to use experiments to probe the functions of the body. Unlike Hippocrates, Galen argued that humoral imbalances can be located in specific organs, including the entire body.[11] His modification of this theory better equipped doctors to make more precise diagnoses. Galen also played off of Hippocrates idea that emotions were also tied to the humours, and added the notion of temperaments: sanguine corresponds with blood; phlegmatic is tied to phlegm; yellow bile is connected to choleric; and black bile corresponds with melancholy. Galen also saw the human body consisting of three connected systems: the brain and nerves, which are responsible for thoughts and sensations; the heart and arteries, which give life; and the liver and veins, which can be attributed to nutrition and growth.[11] Galen was also the founder of experimental physiology.[12] And for the next 1,400 years, Galenic physiology was a powerful and influential tool in medicine.[11]

Early modern era

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Jean Fernel (1497–1558), a French physician, introduced the term "physiology".[13] Galen, Ibn al-Nafis, Michael Servetus, Realdo Colombo, Amato Lusitano and William Harvey, are credited as making important discoveries in the circulation of the blood.[14]

In 1610 Santorio Santorio was the first to use a device to measure the pulse rate (the pulsilogium), and a thermoscope to measure temperature.[15]

In 1628 William Harvey discovered blood constantly being pumped through a single system of arteries and veins around the body.

The discovery of the function of the heart and the circulation of blood was a huge discovery that opened many doors. Not only did it initiate the field of physiology, but it also introduced the principle of experimentation in medicine. Its discovery was attributed to various physicians, such as Galen, Michael Servetus, Realdo Columbo, and William Harvey[16]

Late moderrn era

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In the 19th century, physiological knowledge began to accumulate at a rapid rate, in particular with the 1838 appearance of the Cell theory of Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann.[17] It radically stated that organisms are made up of units called cells. Claude Bernard's (1813–1878) further discoveries ultimately led to his concept of milieu interieur (internal environment),[18][19] which would later be taken up and championed as "homeostasis" by American physiologist Walter B. Cannon in 1929. By homeostasis, Cannon meant "the maintenance of steady states in the body and the physiological processes through which they are regulated."[20]

In the 1820s, the French physiologist Henri Milne-Edwards introduced the notion of physiological division of labor, which allowed to "compare and study living things as if they were machines created by the industry of man." Inspired in the work of Adam Smith, Milne-Edwards wrote that the "body of all living beings, whether animal or plant, resembles a factory ... where the organs, comparable to workers, work incessantly to produce the phenomena that constitute the life of the individual." In more differentiated organisms, the functional labor could be apportioned between different instruments or systems (called by him as appareils).[21]

1847,  Carl Ludwig(1816 – 1895) invented the kymograph, which could record simultaneously variables such as blood pressure, pulse rate and respiratory rate.[22]

In 1851, Claude Bernard (1813-1878)." The father of modern physiology" described the role of the pancreas in digestion, the glycogenic function of the liver, and the regulation of the blood supply by the vasomotor nerves. Also introduced the concept of the milieu intérieur (homeostasis) to describe the principle of dynamic internal physiological equilibrium to sustain the organism in an external environment typified by variability.[23]

In 1852- Carl Ludwig published the first volume of his book of physiology where he challenged traditional scientific theories, suggested new concepts, and proposed what he believed were the best experimental approaches for expanding man's knowledge of living organisms. Also described his formulation of physiology as a science-based on the principles of physics and chemistry.[22]

In 1858, Joseph Lister studied the cause of blood coagulation and inflammation that resulted after previous injuries and surgical wounds. He later discovered and implemented antiseptics in the operating room, and as a result, decreased the death rate from surgery by a substantial amount.[24]

In 1865 Ernst Heinrich Weber alongside his brother Wilhelm Weber demonstrated the importance of capillary resistance and blood volume on circulatory dynamics and the distribution of the blood in the vascular system.[22]

The Physiological Society was founded in London in 1876 as a dining club.[25] The American Physiological Society (APS) is a nonprofit organization that was founded in 1887. The Society is, "devoted to fostering education, scientific research, and dissemination of information in the physiological sciences."[26]

In 1891, Ivan Pavlov performed research on "conditional responses" that involved dogs' saliva production in response to a bell and visual stimuli.[27]

With the beginning of the twentieth century physiology became a mature science where it began to divade in diifferent related disciplines like: comparative physiology and ecophysiology, biochemistry, biophysics, and molecular biology[28]

In 1910 August Krogh, – won the Nobel Prize for discovering how blood flow is regulated in capillaries.[29]

Andrew Huxley and Alan Hodgkin – discovered the ionic mechanism by which nerve impulses are transmitted.They made advances in the study of muscles with the discovery of sliding filaments in skeletal muscles. Their work won them a share of the 1963 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine[30]

Foundations of Physiology

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Image of the anatomy of the human body extracted from a "Life and health; text-book on physiology for high schools, academies and normal schools (c1910)" by CircaSassy is licensed under CC BY 2.0

Anatomy

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Anatomy is the field in the biological sciences concerned with the identification and description of the body structures of living things. Gross anatomy involves the study of major body structures by dissection and observation and in its narrowest sense is concerned only with the human body.  [31]

Human physiology

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Human physiology is the science of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical function of humans, and serves as the foundation of modern medicine. As a discipline, it connects science, medicine, and health, and creates a framework for understanding how the human body adapts to stresses, physical activity, and disease. [32]Human physiology seeks to understand the mechanisms that work to keep the human body alive and functioning,through scientific enquiry into the nature of mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans, their organs, and the cells of which they are composed.[33] The biological basis of the study of physiology, integration refers to the overlap of many functions of the systems of the human body, as well as its accompanied form. It is achieved through communication that occurs in a variety of ways, both electrical and chemical.[34]

Much of the foundation of knowledge in human physiology was provided by animal experimentation. Due to the frequent connection between form and function, physiology and anatomy are intrinsically linked and are studied in tandem as part of a medical curriculum.[35]

Animals

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Main article: Zoology § Physiology

Plants

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Main article: Plant physiology

Plant physiology is a subdiscipline of botany concerned with the functioning of plants. Closely related fields include plant morphology, plant ecology, phytochemistry, cell biology, genetics, biophysics, and molecular biology. Fundamental processes of plant physiology include photosynthesis, respiration, plant nutrition, tropisms, nastic movements, photoperiodism, photomorphogenesis, circadian rhythms, seed germination, dormancy, and stomata function and transpiration. Absorption of water by roots, production of food in the leaves, and growth of shoots towards light are examples of plant physiology.[36]

Cells

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Main article: Cell physiology

Comparative physiology

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Main article: Comparative physiology

Involving evolutionary physiology and environmental physiology, comparative physiology considers the diversity of functional characteristics across organisms.[37]

Women in Physiology

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Initially, women were largely excluded from official involvement in any physiological society. The American Physiological Society, for example, was founded in 1887 and included only men in its ranks. In 1902, the American Physiological Society elected Ida Hyde as the first female member of the society. Hyde, a representative of the American Association of University Women and a global advocate for gender equality in education, attempted to promote gender equality in every aspect of science and medicine.

Soon thereafter, in 1913, J.S. Haldane proposed that women be allowed to formally join The Physiological Society, which had been founded in 1876.

Prominent women physiologists include:

Subdisciplines

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There are many ways to categorize the subdisciplines of physiology:[47]

Physiological societies

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Transnational physiological societies include:

National physiological societies include:

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "physiology". Online Etymology Dictionary.
  2. ^ hvs1001@cam.ac.uk. "What is physiology? — Faculty of Biology". biology.cam.ac.uk. Retrieved 2018-07-07.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ Prosser, C. Ladd (1991). Comparative Animal Physiology, Environmental and Metabolic Animal Physiology (4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Liss. pp. 1–12. ISBN 978-0-471-85767-9.
  4. ^ a b Hall, John (2011). Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology (12th ed.). Philadelphia, Pa.: Saunders/Elsevier. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-4160-4574-8.
  5. ^ Widmaier, Eric P.; Raff, Hershel; Strang, Kevin T. (2016). Vander's Human Physiology Mechanisms of Body Function. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 14–15. ISBN 978-1-259-29409-9.
  6. ^ a b Brandt-Rauf, P W; Brandt-Rauf, S I (1987-01-01). "History of occupational medicine: relevance of Imhotep and the Edwin Smith papyrus". Occupational and Environmental Medicine. 44 (1): 68–70. doi:10.1136/oem.44.1.68. ISSN 1351-0711. PMC 1007782. PMID 3545281.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  7. ^ Casey, Clifford B. (1953). "The March of Empire. By Averam B. Bender. (Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas Press, 1952. Pp. 323. $5.00.)". The Americas. 9 (4): 494–495. doi:10.2307/978414. ISSN 0003-1615.
  8. ^ Helaine Selin, Medicine Across Cultures: History and Practice of Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2003), p. 53.
  9. ^ D. P. Burma; Maharani Chakravorty. From Physiology and Chemistry to Biochemistry. Pearson Education. p. 8.
  10. ^ "Early Medicine and Physiology". ship.edu.
  11. ^ a b c "Galen of Pergamum". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  12. ^ Fell, C.; Pearson, F. (November 2007). "Historical Perspectives of Thoracic Anatomy". Thoracic Surgery Clinics. 17 (4): 443–8. doi:10.1016/j.thorsurg.2006.12.001. PMID 18271159.
  13. ^ Wilbur Applebaum (2000). Encyclopedia of the Scientific Revolution: From Copernicus to Newton. Routledge. p. 344. Bibcode:2000esrc.book.....A.
  14. ^ Rampling, M. W. (2016). "The history of the theory of the circulation of the blood". Clinical Hemorheology and Microcirculation. 64 (4): 541–549. doi:10.3233/CH-168031. ISSN 1875-8622. PMID 27791994. S2CID 3304540.
  15. ^ "23. SANTORIO SANTORIO La medicina statica Edited by Giuseppe Ongaro 2001, 187 pp., Giunti, Firenze". Nuncius. 17 (2): 738. 2002. doi:10.1163/182539102x00397. ISSN 0394-7394.
  16. ^ Friedland, Gerald (2009). "Discovery of the function of the heart and circulation of blood". Cardiovascular Journal of Africa. 20 (3): 160. ISSN 1995-1892. PMC 3721262. PMID 19575077.
  17. ^ "Introduction to physiology: History, biological systems, and branches". www.medicalnewstoday.com. 2017-10-13. Retrieved 2020-10-01.
  18. ^ Bernard, Claude (1865). An Introduction to the Study of Ex- perimental Medicine. New York: Dover Publications (published 1957).
  19. ^ Bernard, Claude (1878). Lectures on the Phenomena of Life Common to Animals and Plants. Springfield: Thomas (published 1974).
  20. ^ Brown Theodore M.; Fee Elizabeth (October 2002). "Walter Bradford Cannon: Pioneer Physiologist of Human Emotions". American Journal of Public Health. 92 (10): 1594–1595. doi:10.2105/ajph.92.10.1594. PMC 1447286.
  21. ^ R. M. Brain. The Pulse of Modernism: Physiological Aesthetics in Fin-de-Siècle Europe. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2015. 384 pp., [1].
  22. ^ a b c Fye, W B (1986). "Carl Ludwig and the Leipzig Physiological Institute: 'a factory of new knowledge'". Circulation. 74 (5): 920–928. doi:10.1161/01.cir.74.5.920. ISSN 0009-7322.
  23. ^ Gross, Charles G. (1998). "Claude Bernard and the Constancy of the Internal Environment". The Neuroscientist. 4 (5): 380–385. doi:10.1177/107385849800400520. ISSN 1073-8584.
  24. ^ "Physiology Friday: 18 October 2013". Physiology News (Summer 2013): 8–8. 2013-07-01. doi:10.36866/pn.91.8a.
  25. ^ "The Society's history | Physiological Society". physoc.org. Archived from the original on 2017-02-14. Retrieved 2017-02-21.
  26. ^ "American Physiological Society > About". the-aps.org. Archived from the original on 2018-10-21. Retrieved 2017-02-21.
  27. ^ "Milestones in Physiology (1822-2013)" (PDF). 1 October 2013. Retrieved 2015-07-25.
  28. ^ "Highlights in the History of Physiology". Leaders in Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence (LPBI) Group. 2014-12-28. Retrieved 2020-11-06.
  29. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1920". NobelPrize.org. Retrieved 2020-10-31.
  30. ^ Schwiening, Christof J (2012-06-01). "A brief historical perspective: Hodgkin and Huxley". The Journal of Physiology. 590 (Pt 11): 2571–2575. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2012.230458. ISSN 0022-3751. PMC 3424716. PMID 22787170.
  31. ^ "anatomy | Definition, History, & Biology". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-10-25.
  32. ^ Leonard, William R. (2008). "Physical Activity and Body Size in Modern Humans and Early Hominids: An Evolutionary Perspective". Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 40 (Supplement): 62. doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000321266.70382.13. ISSN 0195-9131.
  33. ^ Hall, John (2011). Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology (12th ed.). Philadelphia, Pa.: Saunders/Elsevier. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-4160-4574-8.
  34. ^ Pereda, AE (April 2014). "Electrical synapses and their functional interactions with chemical synapses". Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 15 (4): 250–63. doi:10.1038/nrn3708. PMC 4091911. PMID 24619342.
  35. ^ Bergman, Esther M; de Bruin, Anique BH; Herrler, Andreas; Verheijen, Inge WH; Scherpbier, Albert JJA; van der Vleuten, Cees PM (19 November 2013). "Students' perceptions of anatomy across the undergraduate problem-based learning medical curriculum: a phenomenographical study". BMC Medical Education. 13: 152. doi:10.1186/1472-6920-13-152. PMC 4225514. PMID 24252155. Together with physiology and biochemistry, anatomy is one of the basic sciences that are to be taught in the medical curriculum.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  36. ^ "Plant physiology". Basic Biology. 2019. Retrieved 16 January 2019.
  37. ^ Garland, T., Jr.; P. A. Carter (1994). "Evolutionary physiology" (PDF). Annual Review of Physiology. 56: 579–621. doi:10.1146/annurev.ph.56.030194.003051. PMID 8010752.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  38. ^ "Bodil M. Schmidt-Nielsen Distinguished Mentor and Scientist Award". www.pathwaystoscience.org. Retrieved 2020-10-01.
  39. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1988". NobelPrize.org. Retrieved 2020-11-06.
  40. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1947". NobelPrize.org. Retrieved 2020-11-06.
  41. ^ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2004". nobelprize.org.
  42. ^ "Francoise Barre-Sinoussi - biography - French virologist". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  43. ^ "Elizabeth H. Blackburn". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  44. ^ "Carol W. Greider". Encyclopædia Britannica.
  45. ^ "Space motion sickness and alien microbes: learning from astronauts". The Pharmaceutical Journal. 2013. doi:10.1211/pj.2013.11132035. ISSN 2053-6186.
  46. ^ "Unusual Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine", Nobel Prizes and Life Sciences, WORLD SCIENTIFIC, pp. 144–194, 2010-09, ISBN 978-981-4299-36-7, retrieved 2020-11-06 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  47. ^ Moyes, C.D., Schulte, P.M. Principles of Animal Physiology, second edition. Pearson/Benjamin Cummings. Boston, MA, 2008.
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