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Language immersion, or simply immersion, is a method of teaching a second language in which the learners’ second language (L2) is the medium of classroom instruction. Through this method, learners study school subjects, such as math, science, and social studies, in their L2.

There are different formats of language immersion based on: class time spent in L2, participation by native speaking students (L1), learner age, school subjects taught in L2, and even the L2 itself as an additional and separate subject. However, immersion programs vary from one country or region to another because of language conflict, historical antecedents, language policy or public opinion.

A desired outcome of immersion programs is bilingualism, in other words, to develop learners' communicative competence or language proficiency in their L2 in addition to their first or native language (L1). The goals of bilingualism include professional and cognitive advantages. Other outcomes are to improve academic performance through foreign language study, gain exposure to other cultures, and preserve heritage languages. 

Background

Emily

Traditionally, the term ‘immersion’ has two distinct meanings with regards to bilingual education with the main difference being the overall goal of the educational instruction: fostering bilingualism within a group or simply focusing on the development of the L2 without preserving the L1. These different approaches to immersion can be seen in the variety of bilingual immersion models and programs (link to Formats section) (Pacific Policy Research Center). The first use of the term ‘immersion education’, with the goal of fostering bilingualism, was used in a Canadian study outlining the French immersion education of native English L1 speakers. Within this program, native English L1 speakers were formally taught for two to three years in French before being formally taught in English. After a few years, English is incorporated into math, science, and other courses. The outcome for this style of education program is an even split in instruction in both languages by the end of elementary school (Baker).

MB comment: good start. Make sure you keep any references or citations from the original article. This section didn't have much in the way of citations to begin with, and I bet you can find others.

Contexts

Age

According to Jim Cummins, immersion programs in Canada were initially implemented by age. Early immersion is when students begin learning the L2 around Kindergarten. Middle immersion is when students begin learning the L2 around 4^th or 5^th grade. Lastly, late immersion is when students begin learning the L2 around 7^th or 8^th grade.

Class Time

• In partial immersion, about half of the class time is spent learning subject matter in the foreign language. The goals are to become functionally proficient in the second language, to master subject content taught in the foreign languages, and to acquire an understanding of and appreciation for other cultures, but to a lesser extent than complete immersion. In 1997, approximately 60% of immersion programs in the United States were partial.
• In complete immersion, almost 100% of class time is spent in the foreign language. Subject matter taught in foreign language and language learning per se is incorporated as necessary throughout the curriculum. The goals are to become functionally proficient in the foreign language, to master subject content taught in the foreign languages, and to acquire an understanding of and appreciation for other cultures. This type of program is usually sequential, cumulative, continuous, proficiency-oriented, and a part of an integrated grade school sequence. Even after this type of program, the language of the curriculum may revert to the first language of the learners. In addition, in 1997, the remaining 40% of immersion programs in the United States were complete.

Type of Instruction

• In foreign language experience or exploratory (FLEX) programs, students are exposed to a different language(s) and culture(s) in the classroom. A small percentage of class time is spent sampling each of one or more languages and/or learning about language; therefore, proficiency in the target language is not the primary goal. The goals of the program are to develop careful listening skills, cultural and linguistic awareness, and interest in foreign languages for future language study, as well as to learn basic words and phrases in one or more foreign languages.
• In foreign language in the elementary schools (FLES) programs, students focus on listening, reading, writing and speaking in the target language. As opposed to FLEX programs, proficiency in the target language is the primary goal, whereas a secondary goal is to expose students to the foreign language’s culture.
• In submersion programs, bilingual students generally receive all of their instruction in their L2. These programs are often referred to sink-or-swim programs because there is little support for the students' L1.
• In two-way immersion programs, also called dual- or bilingual immersion, the student population consists of speakers of two or more languages. Two-way immersion programs in the United States promote L1 speakers of the target language to maintain that language as well learning English as a second language (ESL). Conversely, these programs promote L1 speakers of English to be immersed in a “foreign language acquisition environment.”
• In early-exit programs, bilingual students transition from a bilingual program to a mainstream classroom at an early age (around 7 or 8 years old). These programs are supported by the belief that bilingual children will benefit the most from transitioning into a mainstream classroom at the earliest age possible.
• In late-exit programs, bilingual students transition from a bilingual program to a mainstream classroom at a later age (around 10 or 11 years old). These programs are supported by the belief that bilingual children will do better academically from being supported in both languages.

Location

People can also relocate temporarily to receive language immersion. This type of immersion occurs when a person moves to a place within their native country or abroad where their target language is the predominant language. For example, Canadian anglophones go to Quebec (see Explore, and Katimavik) while Irish anglophones go to the Gaeltacht. Many times this involves a homestay with a family who speaks only the target language.

Study abroad also can provide a strong immersion environment to increase language skills. However, there are a variety of factors that can affect immersion during study abroad, including the amount of foreign language contact during the program. In order to positively impact competence in the target language, Celeste Kinginger notes that research about the effectiveness of study abroad suggests "a need for language learners' broader engagement in local communicative practices, for mindfulness of their situation as peripheral participants, and for more nuanced awareness of language itself.”

Outcomes

Natalie

Studies have shown that students who study a foreign language in school and especially students who study foreign language starting in elementary school tend to receive higher standardized test scores than students who have not studied a foreign language in school. Students who study foreign languages also tend to have increased mental capabilities such as creativity and higher order thinking skills, and have advantages in the workplace as employers are increasingly seeking workers with knowledge of different languages and cultures (Morris). Bilingual immersion programs are intended to foster proficiency or fluency in multiple languages and therefore maximize these benefits. Even cases in which fluency in the desired language is not fully attained, bilingual immersion programs provide a strong foundation for fluency later and life and help students gain appreciation of languages and cultures that are not their own.

There are no long-term averse affects of bilingual education on the learning of the majority language, regardless of whether students' first language (L1) is a majority or a minority language and regardless of the organization of the educational program. Several observed outcomes of bilingual education are transfer of academic and conceptual knowledge across both languages, greater success in programs that emphasize biliteracy as well as bilingualism, and better developed second-language (L2) literary skills for minority students than if they received a monolingual education in the majority language.

Case Studies

Language immersion programs with the goal of preserving heritage languages, such Hawaii's language immersion program, have also reported initial outcomes of below average test scores on standardized tests. However, it is possible that these low test scores were not caused by purely language-related factors. For example, there was initially a lack of curriculum material written in the Hawaiian language and many of the teachers were inexperienced or unaccustomed to teaching in Hawaiian. Despite initial drawbacks, many of these programs ultimately achieve their goals. The Hawaiian program was overall successful in preserving Hawaiian as a heritage language, with students in the program being able to speak the Hawaiian language fluently while learning reading, writing, and math skills taught in that language.

Language immersion programs with the goal of fostering bilingualism, of which Canada's French-English bilingual immersion program is one of the first, initially report that students receive standardized test scores that are slightly below average. This was true in Canada's program, but by the fifth grade there was no difference between their scores and the scores of students instructed only in English. Students' English spelling abilities matched those of the English-only students not long after. Ultimately students didn't lose any proficiency in English and were able to develop native-like proficiency in French reading and comprehension, but they did not quite reach native-like proficiency in spoken and written French. However, this immersion program is seen as providing a strong foundation for oral French fluency later in life, and other similar programs that might not fully reach their projected goals can also be seen in the same light.

MB comment: you might want to rethink your division of 'case studies' and 'cases by country'.

Cases by country

United States

In the United States, and since the 1980s, dual immersion programs have grown for a number of reasons: competition in a global economy, a growing population of second language learners, and the successes of previous programs. Language immersion classes can now be found throughout the US, in urban and suburban areas, in dual-immersion and single language immersion, and in an array of languages. As of May 2005, there were 317 dual immersion programs in US elementary schools, providing instruction in 10 languages, and 96% of programs were in Spanish.

Hawai'i

The 1970s marks the beginning of Bilingual education programs in Hawai’i. The Hawaiian Language Program was geared to promote cultural integrity by emphasizing native language proficiency through heritage language bilingual immersion instruction. By the year 1995, there were 756 students enrolled in the Hawaiian Language Immersion Program from grades K-8. This program was taught strictly in Hawaiian until grades five and six where English is introduced as the language of instruction for one hour a day. The Hawaiian Language immersion Program is still in effect today for grades K-12. With an emphasis on language revival, Hawaiian is the main medium of instruction until grade five when English is introduced, but does not usurp Hawaiian as the main medium of instruction.

New Zealand

New Zealand is another case of heritage bilingual immersion programming. Established in 1982, full Maori language immersion education has strictly forbidden the use of English in classroom instruction, even though English is typically the L1 of students entering the program. This provides challenges for educators because of the lack of tools for Maori instruction as well as an under developed bilingual teaching strategies.

Malawi and Zambia

A study done by Williams (1996) looked at the effects bilingual education had on two different communities in Malawi and Zambia. In Malawi, Chichewa is the main language of instruction and English is taught as a separate course. In Zambia, English is the main language of instruction and the local language Nyanja is taught as a separate course. Williams’ study took children from six schools in each country who were all year 5 in grade school. Then he administered two tests: an English reading test, and a mother tongue reading test. Results showed several things. One result was that there was no significant difference in English reading ability between the Zambian and Malawian school children. Significant differences did show in the proficiency of mother tongue reading ability. This is to say that Malawian year 5 students performed better in their mother tongue, Chichewa, than Zambian children did in their mother tongue, Nyanja.

Mexico

A study done by Hamel (1995) highlights a school in Michoacan, Mexico. This study focuses on two bilingual elementary schools whose teachers built a curriculum that taught all subjects including literacy and maths were taught in the children’s L1, P’urhepecha. Years after the curriculum was implemented in 1995, researchers conducted a study comparing L1 P’urhepecha students with L1 Spanish students. Results found that students who had acquired L1 P’urhepecha literacy performed better in both languages—P’urhepecha and Spanish—than students who were L1 Spanish literate.

MB: comment: these are a great addition to the article!

See also

• Bilingual education
• English village
• French immersion
• Gaelscoileanna, Irish language immersion
• Kura Kaupapa Māori, Maori language immersion
• Multilingualism
• Native Language Immersion Student Achievement Act

References

Baker, C. (1993). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Beenstock, M. (1996), The Acquisition of Language Skills by Immigrants: The Case of Hebrew in Israel. International Migration, 34: 3–30. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2435.1996.tb00178.x

Cummins, J. (2009). Bilingual and Immersion Programs. The Handbook of Language Teaching. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.

Hummel, K. M. (2014). Language Learning Contexts. Introducing Second Language Acquisition: Perspectives and Practices (pp. 46–50). Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons.

Pacific Policy Research Center. 2010. Successful Bilingual and Immersion Education Models/Programs. Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools, Research & Evaluation Division.

Potowski, K. (2007). Bilingual Education & Bilingualism S: Language and Identity in a Dual Immersion School. Clevedon, GB: Multilingual Matters. Retrieved from http://www.ebrary.com

Wilkinson, S. (1998). On the nature of immersion during study abroad: Some participant perspectives. Frontiers: The interdisciplinary journal of study abroad, 4(2), 121-38.

Yoon Kyong Kima, Lindsey A. Hutchison & Adam Winsler. George Mason University, Fairfax, USA Published online: 23 Dec 2013.

Brainstorm

The "Immersion" article first needs more information in the Background section. I found an article entitled "The Language Immersion Concept" which defines language immersion and provides the history. The "Immersion" article should also include the full-name of FLES which is found on page 43 of Introducing Second Language Acquisition: Perspectives and Practices by Kirsten M. Hummel. This page also includes more information to cite in the article, because there is a lack of citations. I also want to include information about study abroad programs. I found the study mentioned in Hummel about L2 learning in the regular classroom, study abroad, and intensive domestic immersion programs. I found other great articles to include information about language and identity in dual immersion school, short-term immersion, and late immersion.

References

Berthold, M. (1990). The language immersion concept. Babel, 25(2), 30-35. Retrieved from http://libproxy.lib.unc.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/85517044?accountid=14244

Hummel, K. M. (2014). Language Learning Contexts. Introducing Second Language Acquisition: Perspectives and Practices (pp. 46–50). Malden, MA: John Wiley & Sons.

Marsh, H. W., Kit-Tai Hau, & Chit-Kwong Kong. (2000). Late immersion and language of instruction in hong kong high schools: Achievement growth in language and nonlanguage subjects. Harvard Educational Review, 70(3), 302-346. Retrieved from http://libproxy.lib.unc.edu/login?url=http://search.proquest.com/docview/212277787?accountid=14244

Miano, A. A., Bernhardt, E. B. and Brates, V. (2016), Exploring the Effects of a Short-Term Spanish Immersion Program in a Postsecondary Setting. Foreign Language Annals, 49: 287–301. doi:10.1111/flan.12194

Potowski, K. (2007). Bilingual Education & Bilingualism S. : Language and Identity in a Dual Immersion School. Clevedon, GB: Multilingual Matters. Retrieved from http://www.ebrary.com

Morris, Bernadette. "Why Study a Foreign Language?" Retrieved from http://www.learnnc.org/lp/pages/759

Cummins, Jim. "Bilingual and Immersion Programs." The Handbook of Language Teaching (n.d.): 159-81. Retrieved from http://www.gaelscoileanna.ie/assets/Bilingual-and-Immersion-Programs.pdf