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possible aquatic adaptations in human

arguments for the waterside models (including the aquatic ape hypothesis)

species : Homo sapiens

proposed natural habitat : coasts & beaches

# Category Hypothesis Status
A Swimming Possible adaptations for floating and swimming on the water surface
A Swimming Human evolved better swimming ability than other apes (despite the loss of instinctive swimming in all apes), with high endurance and various swimming gaits e.g. breaststroke, front crawl.[1][2] Speculated
A Swimming Reduction of body hair and smooth skin surface evolved for reducing drag.[1] Speculated
A Swimming Dark skin pigment evolved for blocking sunlight in tropical waters.[3] Speculated
A Swimming Higher proportion of subcutaneous fat layer compared to visceral fat evolved for preventing heat loss in water (replace hair), increasing buoyancy, and/or streamlining the body.[1][4] Speculated
A Swimming Fusiform, straight, streamlined body evolved for reducing drag.[1] Speculated
A Swimming Lower bone density evolved for increasing buoyancy (c.f. higher density in Homo erectus possibly evolved for shallow bottom diving).[5] Speculated
A Swimming Hair growth pattern possibly follows water flow lines during breaststroke, evolved for reducing drag before reduction of hair.[1] Speculated
A Swimming Underarm & pubic hair evolved for reducing turbulent flow in the concave surfaces.[6] Speculated
A Swimming Curly hair fibers caused by oval cross-section, evolved for reducing drag (like in seals).[6] Speculated
A Swimming Flexible arms and shoulders, scoop-like hands with thumb webbing (thenar space) evolved for producing steering strokes in swimming and diving.[4] Speculated
A Swimming Longer legs, paddle-like feet with fused toes evolved for producing powerful propulsion in swimming, diving and running.[4] Speculated
A Swimming Force exerted mainly on the first and the last toes, evolved for swimming and diving (like in seals).[7] Speculated
A Swimming Rare condition of webbed fingers and webbed toes as half-way aquatic adaptations.[4] Speculated
A Swimming Utilization of both drag-based & lift-based propulsion in swimming and diving.[6] Speculated
A Swimming Lower normal body temperature with low fluctuations evolved like in aquatic mammals.[7] Speculated
B Diving Possible adaptations for apnea diving under water
B Diving Human evolved better diving ability than land mammals, capability lasts from birth to very old ages (e.g. 90).[8] Evidence support
B Diving Human's bimodal diving pattern similar to sea otters: serial short dives to <20m, separated by recovery intervals, in extreme cases down to 100m.[8] Evidence support
B Diving Enhanced diving reflex approaching the level of semi-aquatic mammals:[8]
- Bradycardia: heartbeat reduces during immersion to save oxygen;
- Peripheral vasoconstriction: blood flow to limbs cuts down to save oxygen for important organs;
- Blood shift: blood fills lung vessels and cavities in extreme depth to prevent organs crushed.		 Evidence support
B Diving Fewer & larger red blood cells, higher concentration of hemoglobin evolved for better oxygen storage under water.[7] Speculated
B Diving Spleen contracts to release extra red blood cells during prolonged diving.[8] Evidence support
B Diving Fine breath control evolved for diving, later as exadaption for speech:[4][3]
- Descended larynx allows mouth breathing for inhaling more air before dives / during swimming;
- Better voluntary breath control for conscious planning of inhalation;
- Breathing pattern in diving (quick inhale & slow exhale) similar to that in speech.		 Speculated
B Diving Ablility to equalize ears at depth as a behavioral adaptation.[8] Evidence support
B Diving Mobile neck evolved for searching resources under water.[6] Speculated
B Diving Flexible backbone enables lift-based "dolphin kick" under water.[4] Speculated
B Diving Dexterous, sensitive hands evolved for collecting and hunting underwater, led to first pebble tool-making and fire-making began near the shore.[1] Speculated
B Diving More efficient countercurrent veins in limbs evolved for reducing heat loss in water.[6] Speculated
B Diving Multi-pyramidal kidneys evolved for excreting excess salt from saline water.[8] Speculated
B Diving High output of water and salt due to abundance of both elements in habitat: abundant sweat & tears, saturated expiration, dilute urine, watery faeces.[7] Speculated
B Diving Sweat (perhaps also tears) evolved for excreting excess salt.[4] Withdrawn
C Pregnancy Possible adaptations in females for pregnancy, laboring and nursing near the water surface
C Pregnancy Water birth proposed as the natural way of laboring in human: less painful and low risk, preferred by women, infant mortality & infection rates no higher than land births, practiced in primitive cultures.[9] Evidence support
C Pregnancy Immersion relieves pain, reduces stress hormones (adrenaline) and facilitates "love" hormone (oxytocin).[8] Evidence support
C Pregnancy More body fat, darker and smoother skin during pregnancy evolved for immersion in open sea.[6] Speculated
C Pregnancy Longer scalp hair (becomes thicker and stronger during pregnancy) evolved so that the floating infant could cling on.[4] Speculated
C Pregnancy Protruding buttocks (in extreme case steatopygia) evolved as a platform for carrying baby.[7] Speculated
C Pregnancy Estrogen causes fat stored around buttocks, thighs and hips, evolved for forming a more fusiform body.[6] Speculated
C Pregnancy Large floating breasts evolved to help feeding while immersed in water.[7] Speculated
C Pregnancy Umbilical cord evolved long enough for the newborn to reach the water surface.[6] Speculated
C Pregnancy No practice of eating placenta (placentophagy) as not possible in water.[8] Speculated
D Infancy Possible adaptations in infants for living near the water surface
D Infancy Infants are able to swim/dive before being able to crawl/walk, no fear or harm caused by immersion.[4][9]
- 0-4 months: infant diving reflex: opens eyes, holds breath, rhythmic limb movements to propel forward;
- 4-12 months: infant floating reflex: rolls onto the back to float & breathe;
- > 1 year: voluntary movements, starts learning to swim, dive, walk.		 Evidence support
D Infancy Brown fat tissues evolved for generating heat in water.[3] Speculated
D Infancy Abundant body fat evolved for preventing heat loss and increasing buoyancy.[4] Speculated
D Infancy Multi-lobed kidney (reniculi) evolved as in marine mammals (the lobes are fused later).[8] Speculated
D Infancy Strong muscles in chin, cheek and lips evolved for close contact suckling, avoid water leaks in.[6] Speculated
D Infancy Vernix caseosa (waxy substance on newborns, with squalene) evolved for waterproofing & antibacterial properties, similar to other semi-aquatic mammals.[2][8] Evidence support
D Infancy Newborns able to hold breath until reaching the water surface.[9] Evidence support
E Sex Possible sexual selection and adaptations in a waterside context
E Sex Facial hair and baldness in males evolved for further streamlining the head and neck during diving (alternative: facial hair evolved as a sexual signal above the water surface).[5] Speculated
E Sex Foreskin in males evolved for avoiding infection in sea water.[6] Speculated
E Sex Longer vaginal canal in females evolved for further isolating the uterus from sea water; longer penis in males evolved in response to deeper vagina.[2] Speculated
E Sex Menstruation synchronized with circalunar (tidal) cycle.[2] Feature disputed
E Sex Labia majora, hymen & vaginal trasverse ridges evolved for waterproofing the vagina, low pH (~ pH 4.5) and lactobacillus colony in the vaginal canal developed to inhibit waterborne pathogens.[2][9] Speculated
E Sex Concealed ovulation (hidden estrus) evolved due to visual (genital swelling) and scent (pheromone) signals became inefficient in water.[2] Speculated
E Sex Practice more face-to-face sex due to straight body plan for diving, e.g. vagina directed towards the front, as in other aquatic mammals.[4] Speculated
E Sex Sex differences evolved due to different gender roles: females more engaged in floating/swimming and males more engaged in diving.[citation needed] Speculated
F Bipedalism Bipedalism possibly originated and/or enhanced in a waterside context
F Bipedalism Bipedalism facilitated by wading: for shallow water foraging, supported by water buoyancy, could overcome various disadvantages.[1][10] Evidence support
F Bipedalism Obligatory bipedalism and upright posture evolved due to longer legs and straight body plan for diving.[4] Speculated
F Bipedalism Endurance running only evolved recently, with exadaptations from aquatic locomotion (strong legs, good balancing...) and new adaptations for running (eccrine sweating, foot arches, short toes...).[5] Speculated
G Head Possible adaptations for waterproofing & thermoregulation in the head and upper body (as usually being out of water, in contrast to insulation in lower body)
G Head Greasy hair evolved for waterproofing the head.[3] Speculated
G Head Scalp hair evolved for blocking sunlight in the tropical waters.[1] Speculated
G Head Round-shaped head (reduced brow ridge, flat face, flat ears) evolved for reducing drag.[6] Speculated
G Head Ear wax (contains oily sebum) evolved for preventing water from entering the ears.[11] Speculated
G Head Sebaceous glands secreting sebum (with squalene) evolved for waterproofing the upper body (head, upper body, back).[3] Speculated
G Head Sweat evaporates through the upper body (highest rate in head, upper body, back) which is above water during aquatic activities.[6] Speculated
G Head Remnant brown fat tissues generate heat in the upper body (neck, upper chest).[6] Speculated
G Head Vestigial air sacs (laryngeal saccule) once evolved in ape ancestors as floating aid.[8] Speculated
G Head Eyebrows and eyelashes evolved for preventing water from entering the eyes.[6] Speculated
G Head Paranasal sinuses evolved for assisting the head to float above the water surface.[7] Speculated
G Head Downward nostrils evolved to prevent water from entering the nose.[4] Speculated
G Head Upper lip and philtrum evolved to enable sealing of the nostrils during diving.[2][8] Speculated
H Ingestion Possible adaptations in eating and drinking for aquatic diet
H Ingestion Specialized oral cavity (small mouth, round jaw & palate, reduced teeth, round versatile tongue) evolved for suction feeding of slippery seafood, later as exadaptions for speech.[8] Speculated
H Ingestion Blunter molars with thick enamel evolved for cracking hard shellfish.[8] Speculated
H Ingestion Low drinking capacity, low tolerance to dehydration developed in a watery context.[7] Speculated
H Ingestion No salt hunger and high tolerance in salty taste since salt is everywhere at the coast.[3] Speculated
I Diet & Brain Brain evolution and the origin of language possibly enabled by freshwater and marine diet
I Diet & Brain Freshwater and marine diet with their high availability, high reliability, and abundance in essential omega-3 fatty acids (e.g. DHA) and micronutrients (e.g. iodine, zinc, selenium) enabled brain enlargement & reorganization, led to higher intelligence, creativity and syntactic ability.[12] Evidence support
I Diet & Brain Vocal learning, speech and singing enabled by fine breath control (orignally for diving) and enhanced articulating apparatus (orignally for ingestion of aquatic food).[8] Speculated
I Diet & Brain Vocal expressions (speech and singing) replaced body expressions as the more efficient choice of communication channel above the water surface.[4] Speculated
I Diet & Brain Acquisition of syntax and speech (originally enabled by aquatic diet) led to the origin of human language.[12] Speculated
I Diet & Brain Recent brain shrinkage due to migration from coastal to riverine, terrestrial habitats.[12] Speculated
J Senses Possible adaptations in senses attuned to a semi-aquatic environment
J Senses Enlarged semicircular canals evolved for better balance under water and on land (bipedalism).[4] Speculated
J Senses Good underwater vision by maximally constricting pupils evolved.[8] Evidence support
J Senses Myopia and astigmatism evolved for correcting vision affected by light refraction in water.[11] Speculated
J Senses Color vision and color blindness evolved due to the less colored environment under water (even monochromatic in deep waters).[8] Speculated
J Senses Peculiar color terms (e.g. combined word for blue-green, for red-yellow) originally developed in watery (blue-green) and sunny (red-yellow) environment.[8] Speculated
J Senses Reduction in smelling sense as being useless in or above water (alternative: smelling sense not reduced but specialized to aquatic diet).[4] Speculated
J Senses Thicker lips evolved for testing allergens in seafood.[6] Speculated
J Senses More importance of umami taste since it is the most prevalent in seafood.[6] Speculated
K Scenario Ecological, behavioral and theoretical considerations of semi-aquatic/waterside scenarios
K Scenario Most of modern human population living near coasts and rivers as remnant of original waterside habitat.[2] Speculated
K Scenario Psychological attraction to water and coastline due to semi-aquatic past (e.g. high-value properties with seaview, beaches, bathing, aquatic sports).[1][10] Speculated
K Scenario Semi-aquatic lifestyle and underwater foraging (procurement of shellfish/fish for food and precious shells/pearls for trading) is possible and sustainable in modern humans, as examplified by Sea Gypsies and Ama/Haenyeo divers, possibly also important in early Homo sapiens.[8] Evidence support
K Scenario Auditory exostosis (surfer's ear) in modern human swimmers and fossils of more recent Homo (H. sapiens, H. neanderthalensis and H. erectus) suggests diving activities.[13] Evidence support
K Scenario Several species of human-specific aquatic parasites (e.g. Dracunculus, Schistosoma) co-evolved with human ancestors.[10] Speculated
K Scenario Aquatic ape model (Hardy/Morgan) - Single semi-aquatic phase in a Miocene "fossil gap" before Australopithecus led to human-chimp split, possibly on an isolated island in East Africa, later returned to land.[1][2] Disproved
K Scenario Saci LCA model (Bender) - Loss of instinctive swimming (i.e. dog paddle) in early hominoids (Miocene apes) due to intense adaptation to arboreal life, led to intrinsic risk of drowning in all extant apes including human.[14] Speculated
K Scenario Amphibian generalist model (Niemitz) - Bipedalism and upright posture in early hominoids (Miocene apes) triggered and maintained by wading in wooded wetland.[10] Speculated
K Scenario River apes model (Kuliukas) - Bipedalism triggered and maintained by wading with very slight levels of selection.[8] Speculated
K Scenario Aquarboreal ancestors model (Verhaegen) - Preliminary freshwater adaptations in early hominoids (Miocene apes, e.g. Morotopithecus, Oreopithecus):[8][15]
- Larger, wider body and tail loss evolved for reducing drag and preventing heat loss in water;
- Flexible shoulders and rigid, centered spine evolved for hanging and swinging;
- Frugivorous and freshwater diet, collecting food by wading & climbing;
- Partial bipedalism and upright posture aided by buoyancy and/or grasping branches		 Speculated
K Scenario Littoral dispersal model (Verhaegen) - Gradual coastal adaptations reached maximum in Homo erectus (Pleistocene) as shallow bottom divers along Indo-Pacific coasts:[8][16]
- Denser bones (pachyosteosclerosis) evolved to aid bottom diving in shallow water to collect sessile foods, causing auditory exostosis;
- Thick back of skull evolved for back-floating between dives.		 Speculated
K Scenario Shore-based model - freshwater (Cunnane et al.) - Gradual freshwater adaptations in early hominins (Pliocene):[12]
- Spead along East African coastal forests and riverine corridors - Aridity refugium model (Joordens);[17]
- Freshwater diet enabled moderate levels of brain expansion;
- Thicker enamel, polished molars in Australopithecus due to eating tough aquatic plants (e.g. papyrus sedge); may also ate catfish;
- Thicker enamel, large molars, heavy skull in Paranthropus evolved for eating hard-shelled invertebrates, comparable to otters;
- Thinner enamel in early Homo (e.g. Homo habilis) due to more reliance on stone tools.		 Evidence support
K Scenario Shore-based model - coastal (Cunnane et al.) - Gradual coastal adaptations in Homo (Pleistocene):[12]
- Hunting fish and collecting shellfish using advanced technologies (e.g. spears, nets);
- Seafaring to islands, e.g. Homo erectus to Crete, Homo neanderthalensis to Flores, Homo sapiens to Australia;
- Marine diet enabled further brain expansion;
- Behavioral modernity in Homo sapiens first emerged in South Africa coasts, with intense exploitation of coastal resources.[18]		 Evidence support
K Scenario Coastal migration model - Homo sapiens migrated along Indo-Pacific coasts from Africa down to South America:[19][20]
- Hopping among estuaries[21], islands and possibly kelp forests[22], travelling by boats and/or swimming (Pleistocene);
- Later more humans settled along rivers and inland habitats with the advance of agriculture (Holocene).		 Widely accepted

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Hardy 1960. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFHardy1960 (help)
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i Morgan 1997. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFMorgan1997 (help)
  3. ^ a b c d e f Morgan 1990. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFMorgan1990 (help)
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Morgan 1982. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFMorgan1982 (help)
  5. ^ a b c Verhaegen et al. 2007. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFVerhaegenMunroVaneechoutteBender-Oser2007 (help)
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Chan 2014. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFChan2014 (help)
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h Roede et al. 1991. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFRoedeWindPatrickReynolds1991 (help)
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v Vaneechoutte, Kuliukas & Verhaegen 2011. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFVaneechoutteKuliukasVerhaegen2011 (help)
  9. ^ a b c d Odent 1996. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFOdent1996 (help)
  10. ^ a b c d Niemitz 2010. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFNiemitz2010 (help)
  11. ^ a b Verhaegen 1987. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFVerhaegen1987 (help)
  12. ^ a b c d e Cunnane & Stewart 2010. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFCunnaneStewart2010 (help)
  13. ^ Rhys-Evans 2014.
  14. ^ Bender 2014. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFBender2014 (help)
  15. ^ Verhaegen, Puech & Munro 2002. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFVerhaegenPuechMunro2002 (help)
  16. ^ Verhaegen & Munro 2011. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFVerhaegenMunro2011 (help)
  17. ^ Joordens 2011. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFJoordens2011 (help)
  18. ^ Marean 2010. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFMarean2010 (help)
  19. ^ Oppenheimer 2009. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFOppenheimer2009 (help)
  20. ^ Erlandson & Braje 2015. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFErlandsonBraje2015 (help)
  21. ^ Bulbeck 2007. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFBulbeck2007 (help)
  22. ^ Erlandson et al. 2007. sfn error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFErlandsonGrahamBourqueCorbett2007 (help)

Bibliography

[edit]

Original thesis

  • Hardy, AC (1960). "Was man more aquatic in the past?". New Scientist. 7 (174): 642–645.
  • Morgan, E (1982). The Aquatic Ape. Stein & Day Pub.
  • Morgan, E (1990). The Scars of Evolution. Souvenir Press.
  • Morgan, E (1997). The Aquatic Ape Hypothesis. Penguin.

Major publications

  • Roede, M; Wind, J; Patrick, J; Reynolds, V, eds. (1991). Aquatic Ape: Fact or Fiction?. Souvenir Press.
  • Cunnane, SC; Stewart, KM, eds. (2010). Human Brain Evolution: The Influence of Freshwater and Marine Food Resources. Wiley-Blackwell.
  • Vaneechoutte, M; Kuliukas, AV; Verhaegen, M, eds. (2011). Was Man More Aquatic in the Past? Fifty Years After Alister Hardy - Waterside Hypothesis of Human Evolution. Bentham Science Publishers.
  • Chiarelli, B, ed. (2013). "Contributions from the "Human Evolution: Past, Present and Future" Symposium, London, 8–10 May 2013. Special Issue, Part 1". Human Evolution. 28 (3–4).
  • Chiarelli, B, ed. (2014). "Contributions from the "Human Evolution: Past, Present and Future" Symposium, London, 8–10 May 2013. Special Issue, Part 2". Human Evolution. 29 (1–3).
  • Chan, WC (2014). "Book Review: Possible Aquatic Adaptations in Human". Human Evolution. 29 (1–3).
  • Stewart, K; Cunnane, S; Tattersall, I, eds. (2014). "Special Issue: The Role of Freshwater and Marine Resources in the Evolution of the Human Diet, Brain and Behavior". Journal of Human Evolution. 77: 1–216.

Individual works

  • Verhaegen, M (1985). "The aquatic ape theory: Evidence and a possible scenario". Medical Hypotheses. 16 (1): 17–32. doi:10.1016/0306-9877(85)90036-2. PMID 3923303.
  • Verhaegen, M (1987). "The aquatic ape theory and some common diseases". Medical Hypotheses. 24 (3): 293–299. doi:10.1016/0306-9877(87)90076-4.
  • Verhaegen, M (1993). "Aquatic versus Savanna: Comparative and Paleo-Environmental Evidence". Nutrition and Health. 9 (3): 165–191. doi:10.1177/026010609300900304. PMID 8183486.
  • Verhaegen, M; Puech, PF; Munro, S (2002). "Aquarboreal ancestors?". Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 17 (5): 212–217. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(02)02490-4.
  • Verhaegen, M; Munro, S; Vaneechoutte, M; Bender-Oser, N; Bender, R (2007). "The original econiche of the genus Homo: Open Plain or Waterside?". In Munoz, SI (ed.). Ecology Research Progress. Nova Science Publishers.
  • Verhaegen, M; Munro, S (2011). "Pachyosteosclerosis suggests archaic Homo frequently collected sessile littoral foods". HOMO - Journal of Comparative Human Biology. 62 (4): 237–247. doi:10.1016/j.jchb.2011.06.002. PMID 21741646.
  • Kuliukas, A (2016). A Wading component in the Origin of Hominid Bipedality? (Ph.D.). University of Western Australia.

References

[edit]

Bibliography

[edit]

Original thesis

  • Hardy, AC (1960). "Was man more aquatic in the past?". New Scientist. 7 (174): 642–645.
  • Morgan, E (1982). The Aquatic Ape. Stein & Day Pub.
  • Morgan, E (1990). The Scars of Evolution. Souvenir Press.
  • Morgan, E (1997). The Aquatic Ape Hypothesis. Penguin.

Major publications

  • Roede, M; Wind, J; Patrick, J; Reynolds, V, eds. (1991). Aquatic Ape: Fact or Fiction?. Souvenir Press.
  • Cunnane, SC; Stewart, KM, eds. (2010). Human Brain Evolution: The Influence of Freshwater and Marine Food Resources. Wiley-Blackwell.
  • Vaneechoutte, M; Kuliukas, AV; Verhaegen, M, eds. (2011). Was Man More Aquatic in the Past? Fifty Years After Alister Hardy - Waterside Hypothesis of Human Evolution. Bentham Science Publishers.
  • Chiarelli, B, ed. (2013). "Contributions from the "Human Evolution: Past, Present and Future" Symposium, London, 8–10 May 2013. Special Issue, Part 1". Human Evolution. 28 (3–4).
  • Chiarelli, B, ed. (2014). "Contributions from the "Human Evolution: Past, Present and Future" Symposium, London, 8–10 May 2013. Special Issue, Part 2". Human Evolution. 29 (1–3).
  • Chan, WC (2014). "Book Review: Possible Aquatic Adaptations in Human". Human Evolution. 29 (1–3).
  • Stewart, K; Cunnane, S; Tattersall, I, eds. (2014). "Special Issue: The Role of Freshwater and Marine Resources in the Evolution of the Human Diet, Brain and Behavior". Journal of Human Evolution. 77: 1–216.

Individual works

  • Verhaegen, M (1985). "The aquatic ape theory: Evidence and a possible scenario". Medical Hypotheses. 16 (1): 17–32. doi:10.1016/0306-9877(85)90036-2. PMID 3923303.
  • Verhaegen, M (1987). "The aquatic ape theory and some common diseases". Medical Hypotheses. 24 (3): 293–299. doi:10.1016/0306-9877(87)90076-4.
  • Verhaegen, M (1993). "Aquatic versus Savanna: Comparative and Paleo-Environmental Evidence". Nutrition and Health. 9 (3): 165–191. doi:10.1177/026010609300900304. PMID 8183486.
  • Verhaegen, M; Puech, PF; Munro, S (2002). "Aquarboreal ancestors?". Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 17 (5): 212–217. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(02)02490-4.
  • Verhaegen, M; Munro, S; Vaneechoutte, M; Bender-Oser, N; Bender, R (2007). "The original econiche of the genus Homo: Open Plain or Waterside?". In Munoz, SI (ed.). Ecology Research Progress. Nova Science Publishers.
  • Verhaegen, M; Munro, S (2011). "Pachyosteosclerosis suggests archaic Homo frequently collected sessile littoral foods". HOMO - Journal of Comparative Human Biology. 62 (4): 237–247. doi:10.1016/j.jchb.2011.06.002. PMID 21741646.
  • Kuliukas, A (2016). A Wading component in the Origin of Hominid Bipedality? (Ph.D.). University of Western Australia.

References

[edit]

Bibliography

[edit]

Original thesis

  • Hardy, AC (1960). "Was man more aquatic in the past?". New Scientist. 7 (174): 642–645.
  • Morgan, E (1982). The Aquatic Ape. Stein & Day Pub.
  • Morgan, E (1990). The Scars of Evolution. Souvenir Press.
  • Morgan, E (1997). The Aquatic Ape Hypothesis. Penguin.

Major publications

  • Roede, M; Wind, J; Patrick, J; Reynolds, V, eds. (1991). Aquatic Ape: Fact or Fiction?. Souvenir Press.
  • Cunnane, SC; Stewart, KM, eds. (2010). Human Brain Evolution: The Influence of Freshwater and Marine Food Resources. Wiley-Blackwell.
  • Vaneechoutte, M; Kuliukas, AV; Verhaegen, M, eds. (2011). Was Man More Aquatic in the Past? Fifty Years After Alister Hardy - Waterside Hypothesis of Human Evolution. Bentham Science Publishers.
  • Chiarelli, B, ed. (2013). Human Evolution. 28 (3–4, Contributions from the “Human Evolution: Past, Present and Future” Symposium, London, 8–10 May 2013. Special Issue, Part 1). {{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  • Chiarelli, B, ed. (2014). Human Evolution. 29 (1–3, Contributions from the “Human Evolution: Past, Present and Future” Symposium, London, 8–10 May 2013. Special Issue, Part 2). {{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  • Chan, WC (2014). "Book Review: Possible Aquatic Adaptations in Human". Human Evolution. 29 (1–3, Contributions from the “Human Evolution: Past, Present and Future” Symposium, London, 8–10 May 2013. Special Issue, Part 2).
  • Stewart, K; Cunnane, S; Tattersall, I, eds. (2014). "Special Issue: The Role of Freshwater and Marine Resources in the Evolution of the Human Diet, Brain and Behavior". Journal of Human Evolution. 77: 1–216.

Individual works

  • Verhaegen, M (1985). "The aquatic ape theory: Evidence and a possible scenario". Medical Hypotheses. 16 (1): 17–32. doi:10.1016/0306-9877(85)90036-2. PMID 3923303.
  • Verhaegen, M (1987). "The aquatic ape theory and some common diseases". Medical Hypotheses. 24 (3): 293–299. doi:10.1016/0306-9877(87)90076-4.
  • Verhaegen, M (1993). "Aquatic versus Savanna: Comparative and Paleo-Environmental Evidence". Nutrition and Health. 9 (3): 165–191. doi:10.1177/026010609300900304. PMID 8183486.
  • Verhaegen, M; Puech, PF; Munro, S (2002). "Aquarboreal ancestors?". Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 17 (5): 212–217. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(02)02490-4.
  • Verhaegen, M; Munro, S; Vaneechoutte, M; Bender-Oser, N; Bender, R (2007). "The original econiche of the genus Homo: Open Plain or Waterside?". In Munoz, SI (ed.). Ecology Research Progress. Nova Science Publishers.
  • Verhaegen, M; Munro, S (2011). "Pachyosteosclerosis suggests archaic Homo frequently collected sessile littoral foods". HOMO - Journal of Comparative Human Biology. 62 (4): 237–247. doi:10.1016/j.jchb.2011.06.002. PMID 21741646.
  • Kuliukas, A (2016). A Wading component in the Origin of Hominid Bipedality? (Ph.D.). University of Western Australia.
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