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Many genocides, persecutions, and mass killings have been committed in Muslim-majority countries or by Islamic governments. In just the twentieth century, millions of people have been killed. Several historians and scholars such as Wolfgang G. Schwanitz and Benny Morris have described Islam and jihad as the causative factor in these killings.[1][2][3][4][5][6]

In the Ottoman Empire

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Hamidian massacres

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This paragraph is an excerpt from Hamidian massacres.[edit]

The Hamidian massacres[7] also called the Armenian massacres, were massacres of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire in the mid-1890s. Estimated casualties ranged from 100,000[8] to 300,000,[9] resulting in 50,000 orphaned children.[10] The massacres are named after Sultan Abdul Hamid II, who, in his efforts to maintain the imperial domain of the declining Ottoman Empire, reasserted pan-Islamism as a state ideology.[11] Although the massacres were aimed mainly at the Armenians, in some cases they turned into indiscriminate anti-Christian pogroms, including the Diyarbekir massacres, where, at least according to one contemporary source, up to 25,000 Assyrians were also killed.[12]

Adana massacre

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This paragraph is an excerpt from Adana massacre.[edit]

The Adana massacres (Armenian: Ադանայի կոտորած, Turkish: Adana Katliamı) occurred in the Adana Vilayet of the Ottoman Empire in April of 1909. Many Armenians were slain by Ottoman Muslims in the city of Adana as the Ottoman countercoup of 1909 triggered a series of pogroms throughout the province.[13] Around 20,000 to 25,000 ethnic Armenians were killed and tortured in Adana and surrounding towns, [14] it was reported that about 1,300 Assyrians were also killed during the massacres.[15] Unlike the previous Hamidian massacres, the events were not officially organized by the central government, but culturally instigated via local officials, Islamic clerics, and supporters of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP).

Armenian genocide

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These paragraphs are an excerpt from Armenian genocide.[edit]

The Armenian genocide[a] was the systematic destruction of the Armenian people and identity in the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Spearheaded by the ruling Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), it was implemented primarily through the mass murder of around one million Armenians during death marches to the Syrian Desert and the forced Islamization of others, primarily women and children.

Before World War I, Armenians occupied a somewhat protected, but subordinate, place in Ottoman society. Large-scale massacres of Armenians had occurred in the 1890s and 1909. The Ottoman Empire suffered a series of military defeats and territorial losses—especially during the 1912–1913 Balkan Wars—leading to fear among CUP leaders that the Armenians would seek independence. During their invasion of Russian and Persian territory in 1914, Ottoman paramilitaries massacred local Armenians. Ottoman leaders took isolated instances of Armenian resistance as evidence of a widespread rebellion, though no such rebellion existed. Mass deportation was intended to permanently forestall the possibility of Armenian autonomy or independence.

On 24 April 1915, the Ottoman authorities arrested and deported hundreds of Armenian intellectuals and leaders from Constantinople. At the orders of Talaat Pasha, an estimated 800,000 to 1.2 million Armenians were sent on death marches to the Syrian Desert in 1915 and 1916. Driven forward by paramilitary escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to robbery, rape, and massacres. In the Syrian Desert, the survivors were dispersed into concentration camps. In 1916, another wave of massacres was ordered, leaving about 200,000 deportees alive by the end of the year. Around 100,000 to 200,000 Armenian women and children were forcibly converted to Islam and integrated into Muslim households. Massacres and ethnic cleansing of Armenian survivors continued through the Turkish War of Independence after World War I, carried out by Turkish nationalists.

This genocide put an end to more than two thousand years of Armenian civilization in eastern Anatolia. Together with the mass murder and expulsion of Assyrian/Syriac and Greek Orthodox Christians, it enabled the creation of an ethnonationalist Turkish state, the Republic of Turkey. The Turkish government maintains that the deportation of Armenians was a legitimate action that cannot be described as genocide. As of 2023, 34 countries have recognized the events as genocide, concurring with the academic consensus.

Assyrian genocide

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This paragraph is an excerpt from Sayfo.[edit]

The Sayfo (Syriac: ܣܲܝܦܵܐ, lit. 'sword'), also known as the Seyfo or the Assyrian genocide, was the mass murder and deportation of Assyrian/Syriac Christians in southeastern Anatolia and Persia's Azerbaijan province by Ottoman forces and some Kurdish tribes during World War I.

The Assyrians were divided into mutually antagonistic churches, including the Syriac Orthodox Church, the Assyrian Church of the East, and the Chaldean Catholic Church. Before World War I, they largely lived in mountainous and remote areas of the Ottoman Empire and Persia, some of which were effectively stateless. The Ottoman Empire's nineteenth-century centralization efforts led to increased violence and danger for the Assyrians.

Greek genocide

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These paragraphs are an excerpt from Greek genocide.[edit]

The Greek genocide[16][17][18][19][A 1] (Greek: Γενοκτονία των Ελλήνων, romanized: Genoktonía ton Ellínon), which included the Pontic genocide, was the systematic killing of the Christian Ottoman Greek population of Anatolia, which was carried out mainly during World War I and its aftermath (1914–1922) – including the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923) – on the basis of their religion and ethnicity.[25] It was perpetrated by the government of the Ottoman Empire led by the Three Pashas and by the Government of the Grand National Assembly led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk,[26] against the indigenous Greek population of the Empire. The genocide included massacres, forced deportations involving death marches through the Syrian Desert,[27] expulsions, summary executions, and the destruction of Eastern Orthodox cultural, historical, and religious monuments.[28] Several hundred thousand Ottoman Greeks died during this period.[29] Most of the refugees and survivors fled to Greece (adding over a quarter to the prior population of Greece).[30] Some, especially those in Eastern provinces, took refuge in the neighbouring Russian Empire.

By late 1922, most of the Greeks of Asia Minor had either fled or had been killed.[31] Those remaining were transferred to Greece under the terms of the later 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey, which formalized the exodus and barred the return of the refugees. Other ethnic groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this period, including Assyrians and Armenians, and some scholars and organizations have recognized these events as part of the same genocidal policy.[32][19][33][18][34]

The Allies of World War I condemned the Ottoman government–sponsored massacres. In 2007, the International Association of Genocide Scholars passed a resolution recognising the Ottoman campaign against its Christian minorities, including the Greeks, as genocide.[19] Some other organisations have also passed resolutions recognising the Ottoman campaign against these Christian minorities as genocide, as have the national legislatures of Greece,[35][36][17] Cyprus,[37] the United States,[38][39][40][41] Sweden,[42][43] Armenia,[44] the Netherlands,[45][46] Germany,[47][48] Austria[49][50] and the Czech Republic.[51][52][53]

Later examples

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Bangladesh genocide

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These paragraphs are an excerpt from Bangladesh genocide.[edit]
Part of a series on
Persecution of Bengali Hindus
Part of Bengali Hindu history
Discrimination
Persecution
Opposition

The Bangladesh genocide (Bengali: একাত্তরের গণহত্যা, romanized: Ēkātturēr Gôṇôhôtyā, lit. '71's genocide', Bengali: বাঙালি গণহত্যা, romanized: Bāṅāli Gôṇôhôtyā, lit. 'Bengali genocide') was the ethnic cleansing of Bengalis, especially Bengali Hindus, residing in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) during the Bangladesh Liberation War, perpetrated by the Pakistan Armed Forces and the Razakars.[54] It began on 25 March 1971, as Operation Searchlight was launched by West Pakistan (now Pakistan) to militarily subdue the Bengali population of East Pakistan; the Bengalis comprised the demographic majority and had been calling for independence from the Pakistani state. Seeking to curtail the Bengali self-determination movement, erstwhile Pakistani president Yahya Khan approved a large-scale military deployment, and in the nine-month-long conflict that ensued, Pakistani soldiers and local pro-Pakistan militias killed between 300,000 and 3,000,000 Bengalis and raped between 200,000 and 400,000 Bengali women in a systematic campaign of mass murder and genocidal sexual violence.[55][56][57][58] In their investigation of the genocide, the Geneva-based International Commission of Jurists concluded that Pakistan's campaign involved the attempt to exterminate or forcibly remove a significant portion of the country's Hindu populace.[59]

The West Pakistani government, which had implemented discriminatory legislation in East Pakistan,[60] asserted that Hindus were behind the Mukti Bahini (Bengali resistance fighters) revolt and that resolving the local "Hindu problem" would end the conflict—Khan's government and the Pakistani elite thus regarded the crackdown as a strategic policy.[61] Genocidal rhetoric accompanied the campaign: Pakistani men believed that the sacrifice of Hindus was needed to fix the national malaise.[62] In the countryside, Pakistan Army moved through villages and specifically asked for places where Hindus lived before burning them down.[63] Hindus were identified by checking circumcision or by demanding the recitation of Muslim prayers.[64] This also resulted in the migration of around eight million East Pakistani refugees into India, 80–90% of whom were Hindus.[65]

Pakistani imams issued fatwas declaring that the freedom fighters were Hindu, irrespective of their actual religion, and thus their women were to be treated as "war booty".[66][67][67][68] Women who were targeted often died in Pakistani captivity or committed suicide, while others fled to India.[69]

Pakistan's activities during the Bangladesh Liberation War served as a catalyst for India's military intervention in support of the Mukti Bahini, triggering the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. The conflict and the genocide formally ended on 16 December 1971, when the joint forces of Bangladesh and India received the Pakistani Instrument of Surrender. As a result of the conflict, approximately 10 million East Bengali refugees fled to Indian territory while up to 30 million people were internally displaced out of the 70 million total population of East Pakistan. There was also ethnic violence between the Bengali majority and the Bihari minority during the conflict; between 1,000 and 150,000 Biharis were killed in reprisal attacks by Bengali militias and mobs, as Bihari collaboration with the West Pakistani campaign had led to further anti-Bihari sentiment. Since Pakistan's defeat and Bangladesh's independence, the title "Stranded Pakistanis in Bangladesh" has commonly been used to refer to the Bihari community, which was denied the right to hold Bangladeshi citizenship until 2008.

Allegations of a genocide in Bangladesh were rejected by most UN member states at the time and rarely appear in textbooks and academic sources on genocide studies.[70]

Anfal genocide

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These paragraphs are an excerpt from Anfal campaign.[edit]
This article is part of
a series about
Saddam Hussein
Personal
Affiliations
Political offices
Rise to power
Presidency
Desposition
Elections and referendums
Novels
Saddam Hussein's signature

The Anfal campaign[b] was a counterinsurgency operation which was carried out by Ba'athist Iraq from February to September 1988 during the Iraqi–Kurdish conflict at the end of the Iran–Iraq War. The campaign targeted rural Kurds[71] because its purpose was to eliminate Kurdish rebel groups and Arabize strategic parts of the Kirkuk Governorate.[72] The Ba’athist regime committed atrocities on the local Kurdish population, mostly civilians.[73]

The Iraqi forces were led by Ali Hassan al-Majid, on the orders of President Saddam Hussein. The campaign's name was taken from the title of the eighth chapter of the Qur'an (al-ʾanfāl).

In 1993, Human Rights Watch released a report on the Anfal campaign based on documents captured by Kurdish rebels during the 1991 uprisings in Iraq; HRW described it as a genocide and estimated between 50,000 and 100,000 deaths. This characterization of the Anfal campaign was disputed by a 2007 Hague court ruling, which stated that the evidences from the documents were not sufficient to establish the charge of genocide.{{Efn|Sources on the 2007 Hague court ruling:

Darfur genocide

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This paragraph is an excerpt from Darfur genocide.[edit]

{{Infobox civilian attack | title = Darfur genocide | partof = the War in Darfur | image = | image_size = | caption = Map of Darfur | location = Darfur, Sudan | target = Darfuri men, women, and children from Fur, Masalit and Zaghawa ethnic groups | date = 23 February 2003–2005 | type = Genocide, mass murder, genocidal rape, arson, scorched earth | fatalities = 200,000[74] | injuries = Unknown | perps = Sudan

Chechnya genocide

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This paragraph is an excerpt from Anti-gay purges in Chechnya.[edit]

These killings have been described as a genocide.[75]

Indonesia

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Indonesian genocide

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This paragraph is an excerpt from Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66.[edit]

Large-scale killings and civil unrest primarily targeting members and supposed sympathizers of the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) were carried out in Indonesia from 1965 to 1966. Other affected groups included alleged communist sympathisers, Gerwani women, trade unionists,[76] ethnic Javanese Abangan,[77] ethnic Chinese, atheists, so-called "unbelievers", and alleged leftists in general. According to the most widely published estimates at least 500,000 to 1 million people were killed,[78]: 3 [79][80][81] with some estimates going as high as two to three million.[82][83] The atrocities, sometimes described as a genocide[84][85][78] or a politicide,[86][87] were instigated by the Indonesian Army under Suharto. Research and declassified documents demonstrate the Indonesian authorities received support from foreign countries such as the United States and the United Kingdom.[88][89]: 157 [90][91][92][93]

East Timor genocide

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This paragraph is an excerpt from East Timor genocide.[edit]

The East Timor genocide refers to the "pacification campaigns" of state terrorism which were waged by the Indonesian New Order government during the Indonesian invasion and occupation of East Timor. The majority of sources consider the Indonesian killings in East Timor to constitute genocide,[94][95][96] while other scholars disagree on certain aspects of the definition.[97][98]

ISIS

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Genocide of Yazidis

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These paragraphs are an excerpt from Yazidi genocide.[edit]

The Yazidi genocide was perpetrated by the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria between 2014 and 2017.[99][100][101] It was characterized by massacres, genocidal rape, and forced conversions to Islam. The Yazidis are a Kurdish-speaking people[102] who are indigenous to Kurdistan who practice Yazidism, a monotheistic Iranian ethnoreligion derived from the Indo-Iranian tradition.

Over a period of three years, Islamic State militants trafficked thousands of Yazidi women and girls and killed thousands of Yazidi men;[103] the United Nations reported that the Islamic State killed about 5,000 Yazidis[104] and trafficked about 10,800 Yazidi women and girls in a "forced conversion campaign"[105][106] throughout Iraq. By 2015, upwards of 71% of the global Yazidi population was displaced by the genocide, with most Yazidi refugees having fled to Iraq's Kurdistan Region and Syria's Rojava.[107][108] The persecution of Yazidis, along with other religious minorities, took place after the Islamic State's Northern Iraq offensive of June 2014.[109][110]

Amidst numerous atrocities committed by the Islamic State, the Yazidi genocide attracted international attention and prompted the United States to establish CJTF–OIR, a military coalition consisting of many Western countries and Turkey, Morocco, and Jordan. Additionally, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia made emergency airdrops to support Yazidi refugees who had become trapped in the Sinjar Mountains due to the Islamic State's Northern Iraq offensive of August 2014. During the Sinjar massacre, in which the Islamic State killed and abducted thousands of trapped Yazidis, the United States and the United Kingdom began carrying out airstrikes on the advancing Islamic State militants, while the People's Defense Units and the Kurdistan Workers' Party jointly formed a humanitarian corridor to evacuate the rest of the Yazidi refugees from the Sinjar Mountains.[111]

The United Nations, and several other organizations, including the Council of Europe and the European Union, have designated the anti-Yazidi campaign by the Islamic State as a genocide,[99] as have the United States, Canada, Armenia, and Iraq.[99][100]

Genocide of Christians

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These paragraphs are an excerpt from Persecution of Christians by the Islamic State.[edit]

The persecution of Christians by the Islamic State involves the systematic mass murder[112][113][114] of Christian minorities, within the regions of Iraq, Syria, Egypt, Libya, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Mozambique and Nigeria controlled by the Islamic extremist group Islamic State. Persecution of Christian minorities climaxed following the Syrian civil war and later by its spillover but has since intensified further.[115][116][117] Christians have been subjected to massacres, forced conversions, rape, sexual slavery, and the systematic destruction of their historical sites, churches and other places of worship.

According to US diplomat Alberto M. Fernandez, "While the majority of the victims of the conflict which is raging in Syria and Iraq have been Muslims, Christians have borne a heavy burden given their small numbers."[118]

The depopulation of Christians from the Middle East by the Islamic State as well as other organisations and governments has been formally recognised as an ongoing genocide by the United States, European Union, and United Kingdom. Christians remain the most persecuted religious group in the Middle East, and Christians in Iraq are “close to extinction”.[119][120][121] According to estimates by the US State Department, the number of Christians in Iraq has fallen from 1.2 million 2011 to 120,000 in 2024, and the number in Syria from 1.5 million to 300,000, falls driven by persecution by Islamic terrorists.[117]

References

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  1. ^ Schwanitz, Wolfgang G. “Islam in Europa, Revolten in Mittelost. Islamismus und Genozid von Wilhelm II. und Enver Pascha über Hitler und al-Husaini bis Arafat, Usama Bin Ladin und Ahmadinejad sowie Gespräche mit Bernard Lewis”, 2013 [= Amerika - Mittelost - Europa. Regionalhistorische Komparatistik: Politik, Wirtschaft, Militär und Kultur, Band 2], 2014, 2. Auflage, 783 S., 150 Abb., 100 Dok., ISBN 978-3-86464-018--6
  2. ^ Ibrahim, Raymond. "Islam's 'Slow Motion' Genocide of Christians". Middle East Forum. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
  3. ^ Rubenstein, Richard L. (2009). Jihad and Genocide. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-6202-8.
  4. ^ "What Turkey Did to Its Christians | Commonweal Magazine". www.commonwealmagazine.org. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
  5. ^ Ze’evi, Dror; Morris, Benny (2020). "Response to Critique: The thirty-year genocide. Turkey's destruction of its Christian minorities, 1894–1924, by Benny Morris and Dror Ze'evi, Cambridge, MA, and London, Harvard University Press, 2019, 672 pp., USD$35.00 (hardcover), ISBN 9780674916456". Journal of Genocide Research. 22 (4): 561–566. doi:10.1080/14623528.2020.1735600.
  6. ^ "New book 'The Next Jihad' to expose Christian genocide in Africa". The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
  7. ^ Armenian: Համիդյան ջարդեր, Turkish: Hamidiye Katliamı, French: Massacres hamidiens)
  8. ^ Dictionary of Genocide, By Paul R. Bartrop, Samuel Totten, 2007, p. 23
  9. ^ Akçam, Taner (2006) A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility p. 42, Metropolitan Books, New York ISBN 978-0-8050-7932-6
  10. ^ "Fifty Thousand Orphans made So by the Turkish Massacres of Armenians", The New York Times, December 18, 1896, The number of Armenian children under twelve years of age made orphans by the massacres of 1895 is estimated by the missionaries at 50.000.
  11. ^ Akçam 2006, p. 44.
  12. ^ Angold, Michael (2006), O'Mahony, Anthony (ed.), Cambridge History of Christianity, vol. 5. Eastern Christianity, Cambridge University Press, p. 512, ISBN 978-0-521-81113-2.
  13. ^ Raymond H. Kévorkian, "The Cilician Massacres, April 1909" in Armenian Cilicia, eds. Richard G. Hovannisian and Simon Payaslian. UCLA Armenian History and Culture Series: Historic Armenian Cities and Provinces, 7. Costa Mesa, California: Mazda Publishers, 2008, pp. 339–369.
  14. ^ Suny 2015, p. 171.
  15. ^ Gaunt, David (2009). "The Assyrian Genocide of 1915". Assyrian Genocide Research Center.
  16. ^ AINA (2015a); AINA (2015b); Armenpress (2015)
  17. ^ a b Kathiérosi tis 14 Septemvríou os iméras ethnikís mnímis tis Genoktonías ton Ellínon tis Mikrás Asías apo to Tourkikó Krátos Καθιέρωση της 14 Σεπτεμβρίου ως ημέρας εθνικής μνήμης της Γενοκτονίας των Ελλήνων της Μικράς Ασίας απο το Τουρκικό Κράτος [Establishment of 14 September as a day of national remembrance of the Genocide of the Greeks of Asia Minor by the Turkish State] (2645/98) (in Greek). Government Gazette of the Hellenic Republic. 13 October 1998. Archived from the original on 24 February 2016.
  18. ^ a b Schaller, Dominik J; Zimmerer, Jürgen (2008). "Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies—Introduction". Journal of Genocide Research. 10 (1): 7–14. doi:10.1080/14623520801950820. S2CID 71515470.
  19. ^ a b c "Resolution" (PDF). IAGS. 16 December 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 April 2008. Retrieved 13 March 2015..
  20. ^ |"Genoktonía í Ethnokátharsi teliká" Γενοκτονία ή Εθνοκάθαρση τελικά [Genocide or ethnic cleansing after all]. On Alert (in Greek). 4 November 2015. Archived from the original on 2018-11-17.
  21. ^ Andrianópoulos, Andréas (5 November 2015). "Genoktonía kai Ethnokátharsi" Γενοκτονία και Εθνοκάθαρση [Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing]. News24/7 (in Greek).
  22. ^ Varnava, Andrekos (2016). "Book Review: Denial of Violence: Ottoman Past, Turkish Present and Collective Violence against the Armenians, 1789-2009". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 10 (1): 121–123. doi:10.5038/1911-9933.10.1.1403. ISSN 1911-0359.
  23. ^ Schwartz, Michael (2013). Ethnische 'Säuberungen' in der Moderne. Globale Wechselwirkungen nationalistischer und rassistischer Gewaltpolitik im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert [Ethnic 'cleansing' in the modern age. Global interactions of nationalist and racist violent politics in the 19th and 20th centuries] (in German). Oldenbourg, München: De Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-486-70425-9.
  24. ^ Barth, Boris (2006). Genozid. Völkermord im 20. Jahrhundert. Geschichte, Theorien, Kontroversen [Genocide: Genocide in the 20th Century: History, theories, controversies] (in German). München: C.H. Beck. ISBN 978-3-40652-865-1.
  25. ^ Jones 2010a, p. 163.
  26. ^ Meichanetsidis, Vasileios (2015). "The Genocide of the Greeks of the Ottoman Empire, 1913–1923: A Comprehensive Overview". Genocide Studies International. 9 (1): 104–173. doi:10.3138/gsi.9.1.06. ISSN 2291-1847. S2CID 154870709. The genocide was committed by two subsequent and chronologically, ideologically, and organically interrelated and interconnected dictatorial and chauvinist regimes: (1) the regime of the CUP, under the notorious triumvirate of the three pashas (Üç Paşalar), Talât, Enver, and Cemal, and (2) the rebel government at Samsun and Ankara, under the authority of the Grand National Assembly (Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi) and Kemal. Although the process had begun before the Balkan Wars, the final and most decisive period started immediately after WWI and ended with the almost total destruction of the Pontic Greeks
  27. ^ Weisband, Edward (2017). The Macabresque: Human Violation and Hate in Genocide, Mass Atrocity and Enemy-Making. Oxford University Press. p. 262. ISBN 978-0-19-067789-3 – via Google Books.
  28. ^ Law I, Jacobs A, Kaj N, Pagano S, Koirala BS (20 October 2014). Mediterranean racisms: connections and complexities in the racialization of the Mediterranean region. Basingstoke: Springer. p. 54. ISBN 978-1-137-26347-6. OCLC 893607294 – via Google Books.
  29. ^ Jones 2006, pp. 154–55.
  30. ^ Howland, Charles P. (2011-10-11). "Greece and Her Refugees". Foreign Affairs. ISSN 0015-7120. Retrieved 2020-09-04.
  31. ^ Gibney MJ, Hansen R, eds. (2005). Immigration and Asylum: from 1900 to the Present. Vol. 3. ABC-CLIO. p. 377. ISBN 978-1-57607-796-2. OCLC 250711524. The total number of Christians who fled to Greece was probably in the region of 1.2 million with the main wave occurring in 1922 before the signing of the convention. According to the official records of the Mixed Commission set up to monitor the movements, the "Greeks' who were transferred after 1923 numbered 189,916 and the number of Muslims expelled to Turkey was 355,635 [Ladas I932, 438–439; but using the same source Eddy 1931, 201 states that the post-1923 exchange involved 192,356 Greeks from Turkey and 354,647 Muslims from Greece].
  32. ^ Jones 2010, pp. 171–2: 'A resolution was placed before the IAGS membership to recognize the Greek and Assyrian/Chaldean components of the Ottoman genocide against Christians, alongside the Armenian strand of the genocide (which the IAGS has already formally acknowledged). The result, passed emphatically in December 2007 despite not inconsiderable opposition, was a resolution which I co-drafted, reading as follows:...'
  33. ^ "Genocide Resolution approved by Swedish Parliament", News (full text), AM, 24 September 2023, containing both the IAGS and the Swedish resolutions.
  34. ^ Gaunt, David (2006). Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: Muslim-Christian Relations in Eastern Anatolia During World War I. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias. doi:10.31826/9781463210816. ISBN 9781593333010.
  35. ^ I 19i Maḯou, kathierónetai os iméra mnímis tis genoktonías ton Ellínon tou Póntou Η 19η Μαΐου, καθιερώνεται ως ημέρα μνήμης της γενοκτονίας των Ελλήνων του Πόντου [19 May is established as a commemoration day of the genocide of the Pontic Greeks] (2193/94) (in Greek). Hellenic Parliament. 11 March 1994. Archived from the original on 25 February 2016.
  36. ^ Tsolakidou, Stella (18 May 2013). "May 19, Pontian Greek Genocide Remembrance Day". Greek Reporter. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
  37. ^ "Government Spokesman's written statement on the Greek Pontiac Genocide, yesterday". Republic of Cyprus Press and Information Office. Archived from the original on 16 December 2019. Retrieved 16 May 2016.
  38. ^ "Text - H.Res.296 - 116th Congress (2019-2020): Affirming the United States record on the Armenian Genocide". 29 October 2019.
  39. ^ "Text - S.Res.150 - 116th Congress (2019-2020): A resolution expressing the sense of the Senate that it is the policy of the United States to commemorate the Armenian Genocide through official recognition and remembrance". 12 December 2019.
  40. ^ "House Passes Resolution Recognizing Armenian Genocide". The New York Times. 29 October 2021. Retrieved 12 February 2021.
  41. ^ "US House says Armenian mass killing was genocide". BBC News. 30 October 2019.
  42. ^ Simpson, Peter Vinthagen (11 March 2010). "Sweden to recognize Armenian genocide". The Local. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
  43. ^ "Sweden: Parliament Approves Resolution on Armenian Genocide". loc.gov. 2010. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
  44. ^ Armenpress 2015.
  45. ^ "Dutch Parliament Recognizes Greek, Assyrian and Armenian Genocide". greekreporter.com. 2015. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
  46. ^ AINA 2015a.
  47. ^ "German Bundestag recognizes the Armenian Genocide". armradio.am. 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
  48. ^ "Bundestag calls Turkish crimes against Armenians genocide". b92.net. 2016. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
  49. ^ AINA 2015b.
  50. ^ "Austrian Parliament Recognizes Armenian Genocide". MassisPost. 2015. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
  51. ^ "Czech Parliament Approves Armenian Genocide Resolution". The Armenian Weekly. 25 April 2017. Retrieved 27 April 2017.
  52. ^ "Czech Republic recognizes the Armenian Genocide". Armenpress. 26 April 2017. Retrieved 27 April 2017.
  53. ^ "Czech Republic Parliament recognizes the Armenian Genocide". ArmRadio. 2017. Retrieved 27 April 2017.
  54. ^ Bass 2013a, p. 198:"The Nixon administration had ample evidence not just of the scale of the massacres, but also of their ethnic targeting of the Hindu minority—what Blood had condemned as genocide. This was common knowledge throughout the Nixon administration."
  55. ^ Dummett, Mark (2011-12-15). "Bangladesh war: The article that changed history". BBC News. Retrieved 2024-10-25.
  56. ^ Magazine, Smithsonian; Boissoneault, Lorraine (2016-12-16). "The Genocide the U.S. Can't Remember, But Bangladesh Can't Forget". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2024-10-25.
  57. ^ Bergman, David (2016-04-05). "The Politics of Bangladesh's Genocide Debate". The New York Times. Retrieved 2024-10-25.
  58. ^ Mookherjee, Nayanika (2012). "Mass rape and the inscription of gendered and racial domination during the Bangladesh War of 1971". In Raphaelle Branche; Fabrice Virgili (eds.). Rape in Wartime. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-36399-1.
  59. ^ MacDermot, Niall (June 1972). "The Review" (PDF). International Commission of Jurists. p. 34. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 March 2022. Retrieved 29 November 2023. As far as the other three groups are concerned, namely members of the Awami League, students and Hindus, only Hindus would seem to fall within the definition of ' a national, ethnical, racial or religious group '. There is overwhelming evidence that Hindus were slaughtered and their houses and villages destroyed simply because they were Hindus. The oft repeated phrase ' Hindus are enemies of the state ' as a justification for the killing does not gainsay the intent to commit genocide; rather does it confirm the intention. The Nazis regarded the Jews as enemies of the state and killed them as such. In our view there is a strong prima facie case that the crime of genocide was committed against the group comprising the Hindu population of East Bengal.
  60. ^ "The Past has yet to Leave the Present: Genocide in Bangladesh". Harvard International Review. 1 February 2023. Archived from the original on 30 June 2023. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
  61. ^ D'Costa 2011, p. 101.
  62. ^ Saikia 2011, p. 52.
  63. ^ Bass 2013a, p. 119:"Despite ongoing reports of unprovoked killing by soldiers, Blood saw the army launching a military campaign to take control of the countryside. Still, he thought, genocide was the right description for what was happening to the Hindus. So the consulate "began to focus our 'genocidal' reporting on the Hindus." The military crackdown, he cabled, "fully meets criteria of term 'genocide.'"49 Over and over, Blood tried to alarm his superiors in Washington. "'Genocide' applies fully to naked, calculated and widespread selection of Hindus for special treatment," he wrote. "From outset various members of American community have witnessed either burning down of Hindu villages, Hindu enclaves in Dacca and shooting of Hindus attempting [to] escape carnage, or have witnessed after-effects which [are] visible throughout Dacca today. Gunning down of Professor Dev of Dacca University philosophy department is one graphic example."50 He explained that the Pakistani military evidently did not "make distinctions between Indians and Pakistan Hindus, treating both as enemies." Such anti-Hindu sentiments were lingering and widespread, Blood wrote. He and his staff tenaciously kept up their reporting of anti-Hindu atrocities, telling how the Pakistan army would move into a village, ask where the Hindus lived, and then kill the Hindu men."
  64. ^ Bass 2013a, p. 120:"Desaix Myers remembers, “We were aware the Hindu markets had been attacked. The villages that we visited were Hindu. We were aware that Hindus specically were being attacked.” In a letter at the time, he wrote, “The Army continues to check, lifting lungis [a kind of sarong worn by Bengalis], checking circumcision, demanding recitation of Muslim prayers. Hindus flee or are shot." He recalls that on one trip out of Dacca, "I was convinced I saw people wearing pieces of cloth identifying themselves as Hindus." Butcher says, “You heard stories of men having to pull down their lungis. If they were circumcised, they were let go. If they were not, they were killed. It was singling out the Hindus for especially bad treatment, burning Hindu villages, it was like a pogrom. It was ridding the province of these people.""
  65. ^ Bass 2013a, p. 302:"The CIA had a blunt explanation for this "incredible" migration: "many if not most of the Hindus fled for fear of their lives." Lieutenant General Tikka Khan, Yahya’s military governor, evidently thought he could quickly frighten the Bengalis into submission. The Pakistan army, the CIA noted, seemed to have singled out Hindus as targets. Although the CIA refrained from crying genocide, it did insist this was an ethnic campaign, with 80 percent—or possibly even 90 percent— of the refugees being Hindus. So far, out of eight million refugees, over six million were Hindus, and many more might follow—ending perhaps only when East Pakistan had no more Hindus left.... This was confirmed by Sydney Schanberg of the New York Times, who, interviewing refugees in India, found that almost all of them were Hindus, who said that they were still specially hounded by the Pakistan army."
  66. ^ Siddiqi 1998, p. 208.
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  69. ^ Islam 2019, p. 175: "The Pakistani occupation army and its local collaborators targeted mostly the Hindu women and girls for rape and sexual violence. Many rape victims were killed in captivity while others migrated to India or committed suicide"
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