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Qianlong Emperor

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Qianlong Emperor
6th Qing Emperor of China
Reign	8 October 1735 - 9 February 1796 (60 years, 124 days)
Predecessor	Yongzheng Emperor
Successor	Jiaqing Emperor
Regency	23 August 1735 – 3 January 1799 (63 years, 133 days)
Burial	Eastern Qing Tombs, Zunhua
Empress	Empress Xiao Xian Chun The Step Empress, Ulanara Empress Xiao Yi Chun
Imperial Noble Consort	Hui Xian Chun Hui Qing Gong Ji Wen Shu Jia
Issue among others...	Yonghuang, Prince Ding Yonglian, Crown Prince Princess He Jing Ku Lun Yongzhang, Prince Xun Yongcheng, Prince Lu Yongqi, Prince Rong Yongrong, Prince Zhi Princess He Jia Heshuo Yongzhong, Crown Prince Yongxuan, Prince Yi Yongxing, Prince Cheng Yongji, Beile Prince Yongjing Princess He Jing Ku Lun Prince Yonglu Princess Heke Heshuo Yong Yan, Jiaqing Emperor Yonglin, Prince Qing Princess He Xiao Ku Lun
Names Chinese: Aixin-Jueluo Hongli 愛新覺羅弘曆 Manchu: Aisin-Gioro Hung Li Posthumous name Emperor Fatian Longyun Zhicheng Xianjue Tiyuan Liji Fuwen Fenwu Qinming Xiaoci Shensheng Chun 法天隆運至誠先覺體元立極敷文奮武欽明孝慈神聖純皇帝 Temple name Qing Gaozong 清高宗
House	House of Aisin-Gioro(爱新觉罗)
Father	Yongzheng Emperor
Mother	Empress Xiao Sheng Xian

The Qianlong Emperor (Chinese: 乾隆帝; pinyin: Qiánlóngdì; Wade–Giles: Ch'ien-lung Ti; Mongolian: Tengeriin Tetgesen Khaan, Manchu: Abkai Wehiyehe, Tibetan: lha skyong rgyal po, born Hongli (Chinese: 弘曆), 25 September 1711 – 7 February 1799) was the sixth emperor of the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty, and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China. The fourth son of the Yongzheng Emperor, he reigned officially from 11 October 1736 to 7 February 1795. On 8 February (the first day of that lunar year), he abdicated in favor of his son, the Jiaqing Emperor - a filial act in order not to reign longer than his grandfather, the illustrious Kangxi Emperor. Despite his retirement, however, he retained ultimate power until his death in 1799. His early reign continued the era of prosperity begun by the Kangxi and his successor Yongzheng, expanding the empire's territory through a series of successful campaigns and maintaining domestic tranquility. The end of his reign, however, has traditionally marked the beginning of Qing decline, as the frontier campaigns and rebellions became more frequent and more expensive, population increases strained Qing bureaucratic capabilities, and foreign powers sought to increase their presence in China.

Early years

During the first year of reign

Qianlong was born September 25th, 1911, to a consort of modest rank. Though many details of Hungli's early years remain a mystery, it is certain that the young Hungli (Qianlong's given name in Manchu) underwent the rigorous education typical for would-be emperors, though his mother's low status made that possibility far from certain. Qianlong began schooling at age 5, and at age 8, once basic literacy had been achieved, began studying the Confucian canon, including the Four Books, which he had memorized by age 12. In addition to these texts, which formed the curriculum for China's imperial examination system, the prerequisite test for prestigious government positions, Qianlong was well-versed in history, poetry, and the arts. With his father, the Yongzheng emperor's ascension to the throne in 1722, and Qianlong's subsequent promotion from imperial grandson to imperial son, the importance of Qianlong's studies became even greater. He received further instruction on Confucian classics, histories, and related commentaries from famous scholars given special permission to teach Emperor's sons within the Forbidden City.

Alongside his Chinese curriculum, Qianlong was also instructed in Manchu history, including Manchu chieftain Nurhaci's establishment of the Eight Banners military organization in 1616, his son Hong Taiji's creation of the Qing dynasty in 1636, and the fall of the Ming dynasty in 1644. Qianlong also learned to read and write in Manchu and Mongolian, two languages unrelated to the already notoriously difficult classical Chinese required to learn the Confucian classics. Completing his thorough education in Manchu culture was a strong emphasis on archery and horsemanship, skills essential for the traditionally martial Manchu nomads. His Manchu identity was of particular importance to the emperor as would be seen throughout his reign.

Ascension to the throne

While the likelihood at birth of Qianlong becoming emperor were low due to his mother's status, he later became a favorite for the position, not just because his father became the Yongzheng emperor, but due to his close relationship with his grandfather, the Kangxi emperor. Some have even speculated that Kangxi selected Yongzheng as his successor so that Qianlong might eventually become emperor, though the legitimacy of Yongzheng's succession remains mired in controversy, making such claims suspect.

Qianlong's close relationship to his grandfather appears to have begun in April 1722, when his father Yongzheng (then still Prince Yong) invited Kangxi to visit at his residence at the imperial Summer Palace, Yuanming Yuan. Kangxi was immediately taken with the precocious young boy, inviting Qianlong to return with him to the Forbidden City, with he would receive instruction alongside Kangxi's sons, nominally his uncles though of similar age. At the Forbidden City, Kangxi favored Qianlong by giving him treats at meals, ensuring he received personal instruction in traditional Manchu military skills like archery and horseback riding, and allowing him remain present for certain affairs of state. During a visit to Chengde later that summer, the relationship between Kangxi and QIanlong deepened further. Qianlong spent even more time with the emperor, watching him practice his calligraphy or receiving help with his own studies. Kangxi even requested to meet Qianlong's mother, Lady Niohuru, an auspicious sign indicating the emperor's favor. One popular legend arising from the visit to Chengde is a hunting trip to Mulan, the imperial game reserve, during which Qianlong was almost killed. Atop his horse, Qianlong approached a wounded bear to finish it off with a bow and arrow according to Manchu custom, but the beast unexpectedly charged him. Kangxi shot the bear before the boy was hurt, but was deeply impressed by the boy's composure, cementing the certainty of Qianlong's "charmed life."

Qianlong's relationship with his father, though not as storied as that with his grandfather, seems to have been equally as warm. In 1923, during his first performance of the Grand Sacrifice, the most important annual harvest ritual, the Yongzheng emperor invited his son to participate, prefiguring his decision to secretly name Qianlong as his successor later that year. In 1933, Qianlong was bestowed the rank of prince, "Prince Bao," by his father, giving him further opportunities to participate in the affairs of state. He participated in two military campaigns, ten important imperial rituals, and gained invaluable experience in dealing with officials and commanders. Ten days after Yongzheng's sudden death, on October 18, 1735, the 24 year-old Qianlong became emperor.

The Ten Great Campaigns

Further information: Ten Great Campaigns

Military costume of Emperor Qianlong. Musée de l'Armée, Paris.

The Puning Temple, built in 1755 to commemorate Qianlong's victory over the Dzungars in the west.

Throughout his reign, Qianlong waged a series of campaigns along the empire's periphery known as the Ten Great Campaigns. This series of campaigns includes the First and Second Jinchuan campaigns (1747-49, 1771-1776), the First and Second Dzungar campaigns (1755, 1756-57) and the subsequent defeat of the Khoja rebels (1757-1759), the Burma campaigns (1767-1771), the campaign against Lin Shuangwen's rebels in Taiwan (1787-88), the Vietnam campaign (1786-89), and the First and Second Gurkha campaigns (1790, 1792).

The Jinchuan Campaigns

The first victory of Qianlong's reign and the first of his Ten Great Campaigns was the suppression of rebel Tibetans from the Jinchuan river region in western Sichuan. In 1748, Qianlong selected the apparently stalwart Manchu Necin, who had been named head of the Grand Council but a few years before to conduct the affair, but after months of little progress due to ineffective battle plans and inept leadership, Qianlong recalled Necin and sent his brother-in-law Fuheng to suppress the rebellion. Within 9 months, Fuheng had restored Qing control of the region.

Trouble re-emerged in the region in a couple decades, but suppressing the rebellion took nearly twice as long and cost nearly as much as the massive Dzungar campaigns. Lasting from 1771 to 1776, costing upwards of 70 million silver taels, and requiring the presence of nearly 100,000 troops, the second campaign is indicative of the trend towards longer and more expensive wars towards the end of the Qianlong's reign.

The Dzungar Campaigns / Khoja Suppression

Qianlong counted his campaigns against the semi-nomadic Dzungar Mongols of the Eurasian steppe to the empire's northwest border as part of his Ten Great Campaigns. Begun by Kangxi, campaigns against the Dzungars had never been wholly successful, despite the death of the Dzungar khan Galdan, stretching on for decades. With Yongzheng's ascendancy, however, imperial policy temporarily shifted towards diplomacy. In 1739, Qianlong himself had signed the Dzungar Treaty to establish the border between the Qing and the Dzungars. By the mid-1750s, however, new rebellions had compelled Qianlong to wage two campaigns (1755, 1756-1757) against the half million remaining Dzungars, ultimately succeeding in their suppression and allowing for the immigration of millions of Qing subjects. Qianlong also decided to campaign against the Turkic and Uighur Muslims loyal to the White Mountain Khojas, located in the Tarim Basin southwest of the Dzungars. Despite a lack of support and even some criticism from officials and intellectuals, Qianlong formally annexed the "New Kingdom" as Xinjiang in 1768. To deflect criticism, Qianlong intended to make Xinjiang economically self-sufficient by implementing military-agricultural colonies, but the region was expensive to maintain and required grain imports from other provinces. The opening of silver mines and subsidized farms and stables did not fully make up the losses incurred governing the region. As such, Xinjiang was most notable during Qianlong's reign as a penal colony, with as high as 10 percent of governor-generals as well numerous officials from lower offices spending time there in banishment.

The Gurkha Campaigns

Until the end of the 17th century, the Qing had generally maintained peaceful, diplomatic relations with Tibetans. In 1652, the Shunzhi emperor and even welcomed the fifth Dalai Lama to Beijing where the two conducted ceremonial exchanges. By the end of the century, however, the Tibetan aristocrat Samgye Gyamtso had usurped control amid feuding amongst the governing class, and had allied the Tibetans with the Dzungar Mongols, whom the Qing were campaigning against. This prompted Kangxi to arrange Gyamsto's assassination, but by 1717 the Dzungars had invaded Tibet, further prompting Kangxi for a full-scale occupation of Lhasa by 1720. Though the Yongzheng emperor later wanted to withdraw troops from the city, continuing turmoil necessitated the dispatch of even more troops by 1728. The situation remained, though largely under control for Qianlong. More troops were sent to Tibet in 1750 and again in 1791, after the neighboring Gurkhas from Nepal invaded. In the process, Qing forces had eventually taken control of local administration as ambans, or custodians of the state. In accordance with Buddhist teachings and his role as the bodhisattva Manjusri, conferred upon the Qing emperor by the Dalai Lama in 1639, Qianlong generally allowed Tibetan culture to remain intact, withholding any policies of forced sinicization. of forced sinicization.

The Miao Campaign

One of Qianlong's earliest campaigns was undertaken against the Miao of southern China, in what is today Guizhou Province. The Miao lived in a tropical climate with mountainous terrain, and very few could read or write Chinese. Moreover, the Miao language was spoken only and had no writing system. This made bureaucratic administration of the region unfeasible for the Qing, who until 1726 had merely confirmed the power of local authorities in exchange for allegiance to the empire. In 1726, however, the Yongzheng emperor tried to impose the Chinese bureaucratic system in response to reports that local leaders were exploiting their subjects. Miao chieftains resisted this change until forced to submit by the general Ortai. Ortai left Guizhou in 1731, and by 1735 unrest had once again begun to surface. With Yongzheng's death, Qianlong immediately recalled the blustering, politically ambitious Zhang Zhao, the official overseeing the region, and replaced him with Ortai's assistant. In less than a year, the Miao were subdued, and Qianlong re-instituted more generous policies of appeasement, allowing the Miao's land to go untaxed and allowing use of their legal codes to resolve disputes. Additionally, Qianlong left troops stationed in the region to prevent further turmoil. Qianlong's campaign and subsequent policies were overwhelmingly positive, resulting in decades of peace in the region.

Suppression of Lin Shuangwen's Rebels

Qianlong had officially begun Qing colonization several decades before his campaign against Lin Shuangwen's rebels, but Qing presence on the island remained limited to a small bureaucracy and a garrison of just 6,000 troops. In 1787, a Qing civil administrator tried to crack down heavily on some of the loosely-governed island's incendiaries, which backfired causing rebellion. Poor peasant Lin Shuangwen came to lead the rebellion, which took control over most of the island before Qianlong replaced his ineffective generals with Manchu general Fukang'an, whose 60,000 troops suppressed Lin's force of 100,000 in a week. By spring 1789, Lin had been executed in Beijing and the campaign finished.

Qianlong as Cultural Patron

The Qianlong Emperor Viewing Paintings

Qianlong's handwriting carved into a stone tablet found in the remnants of Old Summer Palace

Qianlong the Artist

Qianlong was undoubtedly a patron of the arts, collecting and even producing books, art, calligraphy, and poetry from the Song, Ming, and Yuan dynasties, with which he was well-versed from the education of his youth. He began painting when he was eighteen, though even by his own estimation was only a mediocre talent. Nevertheless, he had a particular affinity for painting and the Jesuit painters of his court, including Denis Attiret and Giuseppe Castiglione, who painted numerous portraits of the emperor in collaboration with other court artists. Though he had no talent for it, Qianlong was also fond of music, again turning to Jesuits to train pupil musicians in his court. He was also fond of Southern-styled Chinese opera, having it performed so much at court that it became known as "Peking opera." Qianlong did possess some talent in the art of calligraphy, practicing it daily in an almost spiritual exercise. Qianlong was very proud of his calligraphy, often inscribing comments or his seal on official gifts or pieces of art he particularly enjoyed. Qianlong's poetic output was especially great--by most counts numbering over 40,000 poems, filling over 280 volumes. Obviously, Qianlong's authorship of these somewhat suspect due to the sheer number produced, but if accounts of the emperor's diligent adherence to his daily schedule hold some truth, then such output is possible, though it's highly likely he was assisted to some degree by court ministers. The subjects of Qianlong's poetry range from military victories and commemorations to nostalgic recollections and praise for favorite works of art. Despite Qianlong's apparent enthusiasm for poetry, most historians value his work for its historical rather than its poetic qualities.

Qianlong the Collector

Qianlong also accumulated vast collections of paintings, jades, and other art throughout his reign. The dispersal of art during the Qing conquest gave Qianlong numerous opportunities to acquire choice pieces to add to the existing imperial collections. He owned over 10,000 paintings from the Song, Ming, and Yuan dynasties upon many of which he placed his imperial seal and sometimes even poetry inspired by the art. He also possessed many paintings by contemporary masters in his court, often commissioning the creation of new works, many of which featured himself styled as a literatus, or even as a bodhisattva. From the newer works Qianlong commissioned, it is clear the emperor favored the European style of his Jesuit painters which produced much more realistic depictions of facial details, which were placed in juxtaposition to traditionally-styled background scenes. Qianlong also acquired massive collections of porcelain, particularly from the Song dynasty, which were most prized. He also commissioned the creation of many new porcelains, but these have been called inferior to Song-era pieces due to excessive ornateness. The jade produced under Qianlong's oversight is undisputedly impressive, however, some pieces weighing tens of thousands of pounds. Much of the jade used by court artists originated in Xinjiang, which Qianlong had brought within the empire after subjugating the Dzungars. In addition to paintings, porcelain, and jade, Qianlong also collected bronzes, coins, and even Western clocks among other things.

The Complete Library of the Four Treasuries (Siku Quanshu)

Continuing his study of the classics begun with his early education, Qianlong continued to study and amass a large collection rare books and writings of all types throughout his reign. Beginning around the 1750s, Qianlong began reissuing updated classics with official imperial commentaries, as well as commissioning Manchu translations of the Four Books and Five Classics. His greatest literary achievement, however, was the Complete Library of the Four Treasuries (ski quanshu), which sought to collect everything meaningful ever written in Chinese, compile it, and republish it for posterity. The idea sprung from the Ming emperor Yongle, who had successfully undertaken a similar project in the 1400s, though by Qianlong's reign much of the Yongle Encyclopedia had been lost in the Qing conquest. In 1772, the emperor issued an edict calling his officials to watch for and and attempt to acquire any rare books that might be in their district. Collecting all the texts for inclusion lasted from 1773-1782, while copying, correcting, and finalizing the collection lasted another decade. The Complete Library of the Four Treasuries was completed in 1792, and comprised 36,000 volumes containing 3,500 unabridged works. The project not only satisfied Qianlong's desire to expand his collection, but also his desire to establish himself as a man of letters. Moreover, the project helped preserve many works that were at risk of being lost. Ironically, Qianlong also used the project to censure or destroy any works containing Anti-Manchu sentiment. Qianlong promised clemency to the owners of such material as long as the books were turned in, but by the late 1770s, obsequious officials began to increasingly seek out and destroy banned books to curry favor with the emperor, creating an atmosphere of hysteria and increased tension. This has caused some to criticize Qianlong and the entire project as thinly veiled campaign of censorship.

End of the Reign

As prosperous as Qianlong's reign had been throughout the majority of the 18th century, by the twilight years of his reign, a number of problems became emergent, indicative of the trying years ahead for the dynasty. First, the empire's population nearly doubled from 150 million in 1700 to nearly 300 million in 1800, just after the end of Qianlong's reign. Feeding this ever-increasing population was somewhat alleviated by the introduction of hardier crops like maize, sweet potatoes, and tomatoes from the new world. These crops often grew in areas unsuitable for traditional crops or during off-peak growing seasons, greatly increasing the productivity of the empire's arable land. However, the Kangxi emperor had fixed the basic land tax rate in 1713, and in order to remain filial, Qianlong was never able to raise the rates. Thus, raising taxes to pay for administration of the increasingly large population and expensive wars on the frontier was exceedingly difficult. As government revenue became increasingly limited, officials were forced to resort to bribery and corruption to meet the basic administrative needs of the regions they oversaw. Of course, many cases of official corruption were solely to increase unscrupulous officials' personal wealth. This underscores another problem in the later years of Qianlong's reign: the bureaucracy did not grow to reflect the increase in population. Between dwindling tax revenues and unmanageable bureaucratic responsibilities, official corruption was all but inevitable.

Heshen

Perhaps the face of official corruption in the later years of Qianlong's reign was Heshen. Heshen was born into an undistinguished Banner family in 1750, but in 1771 was mysteriously promoted to imperial bodyguard. Supposedly, he had reminded the emperor of his former empress, Lady Fuca. From there, he rose rapidly through a number of important posts including the Grand Council, until he had become so close a confidant of the emperor's that he effectively shared power with him. Deeply distrusted by Qianlong's son Jiaqing and many other high officials, Heshen was trusted by Qianlong to conduct many of the empire's affairs, including investigations into official corruption. Even after Qianlong abdicated from the throne in 1795 as a filial gesture to his grandfather, ensuring his reign would not be as long as Kangxi’s, Heshen was able to use his close affiliation with the emperor to keep his enemies in check and remain in power. However, once QIanlong’s de facto rule ceased with his death in 1799, the new emperor Jiaqing arrested Heshen on twenty different charges, eventually forcing his death through suicide, and Heshen's fortune reverted back to the imperial coffers, it became apparent he had engaged in an unprecedented level of corruption. Heshen had embezzled 800 million silver taels, over twenty years worth of tax revenue, and more than enough to have funded Qianlong's Ten Great Campaigns.

The Macartney Mission

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Main article: Macartney Embassy

See also: All under heaven, Hua-Yi distinction, and Kowtow

Lord Macartney's embassy, 1793.

The French Jesuit Joseph-Marie Amiot (1718-1793) was the official translator of Western languages for Emperor Qianlong.

Lord George Macartney had served the British Empire in both India and as an ambassador in St. Petersburg before being sent by the Crown to meet with Qianlong to address a number of trading concerns the British hoped to have resolved. First, by the time Macartney and Qianlong met in fall 1793, the English were suffering from a major trade imbalance caused primarily through the demand for tea, resulting in significant yearly outflows of silver to China. Macartney and his adjunct George Staunton were tasked with correcting this imbalance by opening more trading ports, arrange for the creation of an English embassy, and straighten out other lingering trade issues like tariffs that were hampering the growth of markets for English goods. The results of the mission were decidedly unsuccessful for the British, however. Not only was Qianlong unimpressed with the English watches and clocks, since watches of similar design had been introduced to China by Jesuits decades before, but any hope of establishing more equitable trade relations was complicated by the formal etiquette a meeting with Qianlong required. Macartney refused the traditional kowtow to the emperor, claiming it was unbefitting the emissary of a sovereign on equal standing with the emperor. Eventually, Macartney agreed to kneel before the emperor as he would before the Queen. Though the problem of etiquette was resolved, it is perhaps indicative of a deeper misunderstanding between what British and Qing hoped to achieve through meeting. After the ceremonies, Qianlong regarded the meetings with the British as simply concluded, while Macartney and Staunton presumably hoped it was the beginning of formal diplomatic relations. With the departure of Macartney that fall, it was evident that the mission had done to alleviate the increasingly tense relations between the two empires.

A description of the Emperor is provided in the account of one of the visiting Englishmen, Aeneas Anderson:

The Emperor is about five feet ten inches in height, and of a slender but elegant form; his complexion is comparatively fair, though his eyes are dark; his nose is rather aquiline, and the whole of his countenance presents a perfect regularity of feature, which, by no means, announce the great age he is said to have attained; his person is attracting, and his deportment accompanies by an affability, which, without lessening the dignity of the prince, evinces the amiable character of the man. His dress consisted of a loose robe of yellow silk, a cap of black velvet with a red ball on the top, and adorned with a peacock's feather, which is the peculiar distinction of mandarins of the first class. He wore silk boots embroidered with gold, and a sash of blue girded his waist.

It is uncertain whether Anderson actually saw the Emperor, or repeated another's sighting, as he was not involved in the ceremonies.

George Macartney's Manchu Qing observations

In George Macartney's memoirs, there were many passages describing what was, in his opinion, an overall poor quality of life for the Chinese under Qing rule. Macartney expressed opinions which were widely disseminated:

“ The Empire of China is an old, crazy, first-rate Man of War, which a fortunate succession of and vigilant officers have contrived to keep afloat for these hundred and fifty years past, and to overawe their neighbours merely by her bulk and appearance. But whenever an insufficient man happens to have the command on deck, adieu to the discipline and safety of the ship. She may, perhaps, not sink outright; she may drift some time as a wreck, and will then be dashed to pieces on the shore; but she can never be rebuilt on the old bottom. ”

Qianlong's Legacy

Qianlong's legacy has been decidedly mixed, with some praising him for his great cultural contributions and successful frontier campaigns which extended the borders of the empire and established precedents for the territorial claims the People's Republic of China now asserts over Xinjiang, Tibet, and Taiwan. Others, however, point to Qianlong's refusal to increase tax revenue, his censorship of books during the compilation of the Siku Quanshu, and his later inability to address inceasing domestic turmoil such as that which led to the White Lotus Rebellion as proof of his overly rigid conservatism, which lead to the widespread corruption of the bureaucracy exemplified by Heshen, and the disgraces by foreign imperial powers during the Opium Wars foreshadowed by the Macartney mission.

Family

• Father: the Yong Zheng Emperor (of whom he was the 4th son)
• Mother: Empress Xiao Sheng Xian (1692–1777) of the Niuhuru Clan (Chinese: 孝聖憲皇后; Manchu: Hiyoošungga Enduringge Temgetulehe Hūwanghu)

"Empress Xiao Xian Chun", Qianlong's first empress

Consorts

• Empress Xiao Xian Chun
• Demoted Empress Ulanara, The Step Empress
• Empress Xiao Yi Chun
• Imperial Noble Consort Hui Xian
• Imperial Noble Consort Chun Hui
• Imperial Noble Consort Shu Jia
• Imperial Noble Consort Qing Gong
• Imperial Noble Consort Zhe Min
• Noble Consort Ying
• Noble Consort Wan
• Noble Consort Xun
• Noble Consort Xin
• Noble Consort Yu
• Consort Dun
• Consort Shu
• Consort Rong, The Fragrant Concubine
• Worthy Lady Shun

Sons

• Eldest son: Prince Yong Huang (5 July 1728–21 April 1750), son of Imperial Noble Consort Che Min
• 2nd: Prince Yong Lian [永璉] (26 June 1730–21 September 1738), 1st Crown Prince, son of Empress Xiao Xian Chun
• 3rd: Prince Yongzhang [永璋] (25 May 1735-26 July 1760), son of Imperial Noble Consort Chun Hui, bore the title Prince Xun of the Second Rank (循郡王)
• 4th: Prince Yongcheng [永珹] (1739-1777), son of Imperial Noble Consort Shu Jia, bore the title Prince Lu of the First Rank (履端親王)
• 5th: Prince Yong Qi [永琪] (23 March 1741 - 16 April 1766), son of Noble Consort Yu, bore the title Prince Rong of the Blood (榮親王)
• 6th: Prince Yongrong [永瑢] (14 December 1743-1790), son of Imperial Noble Consort Chun Hui, bore the title Prince Zhi of the First Rank (質莊親王)
• 7th: Prince Yong Zhong [永琮] (8 April 1746–29 December 1748), 2nd Crown Prince, initially bore the title Prince Zhe of the First Rank (哲親王), son of Empress Xiao Xian Chun
• 8th: Prince Yong Xuan [永璇] (15 July 1746-7 August 1832), son of the Imperial Noble Consort Shu Jia, bore the title Prince Yi of the First Rank (儀慎親王)
• 9th: Prince ? (2 August 1748-11 June 1749), son of Imperial Noble Consort Shu Jia
• 10th: Prince ? (12 June 1751-7 July 1753), son of Consort Shu
• 11th: Prince Yong Xing [永瑆] (2 February 1752-30 March 1823), son of the Imperial Noble Consort Shu Jia, bore the title Prince Cheng of the First Rank (成哲親王)
• 12th: Prince Yong Ji [永璂] (25 April 1752-1776), son of Demoted Empress Ulanara, the Step Empress
• 13th: Prince Yongjing [永璟] (21 December 1755-24 July 1757), son of Demoted Empress Ulanara, the Step Empress
• 14th: Prince Yonglu [永璐] (17 July 1757 - 8 March 1760), son of Empress Xiao Yi Chun
• 15th: Prince Yong Yan [永琰] (13 November 1760 - 2 September 1820), son of Empress Xiao Yi Chun. created Prince Jia of the First Rank (嘉親王) in 1789, ascended the throne on 9 February 1796 as the Jiaqing Emperor
• 16th: Prince ? (13 January 1763 - 6 May 1765), son of Empress Xiao Yi Chun
• 17th: Prince Yong Lin [永璘] (11 May 1766 - 13 March 1820), son of Empress Xiao Yi Chun, created a beile in 1789, elevated to Prince Qing of the Second Rank (慶郡王) in 1799, elevated to Prince Qing of the First Rank (慶親王) in 1820 but died that same year. His grandson was Yikuang, Prince Qing.
• Famous general Fu Kang'an (福康安) was rumored to be an illegitimate son of Qianlong but this has never been proven, however, he was the most favoured general in the Qianlong's reign

Daughters

• Eldest daughter: Princess ? (1728–1729), daughter of Empress Xiao Xian Chun
• 2nd: Princess ?, daughter of Imperial Noble Consort Zhe Min
• 3rd: Princess He Jing [固倫和敬公主] (28 June 1731–15 August 1792), daughter of Empress Xiao Xian Chun
• 4th: Princess He Jia [和硕和嘉公主] (24 December 1745–29 October 1767), daughter of the Imperial Noble Consort Chun Hui
• 5th: Princess ?, daughter of The Step Empress, Ulanara
• 6th: Princess ? (24 August 1755-27 September 1758), daughter of Noble Consort Xin
• 7th: Princess He Jing [固伦和静公主] (10 August 1756 - 9 February 1975), daughter of Empress Xiao Yi Chun
• 8th: Princess ?, daughter of Noble Consort Xin
• 9th: Princess Heke [和硕和恪公主] (17 August 1758 - 14 April 1780), daughter of Empress Xiao Yi Chun
• 10th: Princess He Xiao [固伦和孝公主] (2 February 1775 - 13 October 1823), daughter of Consort Dun and Qianlong's favorite daughter
• Princess Huanzhu is rumored to be an illegitimate daughter of Qianlong and one of his mistresses, although this has not been proven.

Adopted daughter

• Princess He Wan [和硕和婉公主] (24 June 1734-17 March 1760), originally the eldest daughter of Hongzhou, Prince He, the fifth son of the Yongzheng Emperor and therefore Qianlong's niece. Her biological mother was Lady Ujaku (乌札库氏), Hongzhou's principal wife.

Ancestry

Ancestors of the Qianlong Emperor
Huang Taiji Shunzhi Emperor Princess Borjigit Bumbutai Kangxi Emperor Empress Xiao Kang Zhang Yongzheng Emperor Uya Wei-wu, Lieutenant-Colonel Empress Xiao Gong Ren of the Uya Clan Hongli, Qianlong Emperor Prince Eidu of the Niuhuru Clan Ling Chu, First Prince Liang Rong Empress Xiao Sheng Xian of the Niuhuru Clan

See also

• Jean Joseph Marie Amiot
• Giuseppe Castiglione
• Manwen Laodang
• Canton System
• Xi Yang Lou
• Long Corridor
• Putuo Zongcheng Temple
• Qianlong Dynasty

References

• Æneas Anderson, A Narrative of the British Embassy to China, in the Years 1792, 1793, and 1794; Containing the Various Circumstances of the Embassy, with Accounts of Customs and Manners of the Chinese (London: J. Debrett, 1795)
• van Braam Houckgeest, Andreas Everardus. (1797). Voyage de l'ambassade de la Compagnie des Indes Orientales hollandaises vers l'empereur de la Chine, dans les années 1794 et 1795. Philadelphia: M.L.E. Moreau de Saint-Méry.
• _______________. (1798). An authentic account of the embassy of the Dutch East-India company, to the court of the emperor of China, in the years 1974 and 1795, Vol. I. London : R. Phillips. [digitized by University of Hong Kong Libraries, Digital Initiatives, "China Through Western Eyes." ]
• Clarke, Michael Edmund (2004). {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) "In the Eye of Power: China and Xinjiang from the Qing Conquest to the 'New Great Game' for Central Asia, 1759-2004." Doctoral thesis, Dept. of International Business & Asian Studies, Griffith University, Brisbane.
• Crossley, Pamela."A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology." 10-ISBN 0-520-23424-3; 13-ISBN 978-0-520-23424-6
• de Guignes, Chrétien-Louis-Joseph (1808). Voyage a Pékin, Manille et l'Ile de France. Paris.
• Henss, Michael: The Qianlong Emperor as a Grand Lama. In: Asian Art Gallery, Nov. 1998.
• Perdue, Peter C. (2005). {{cite book}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia. Cambridge, Mass.; London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
• Robbins, Helen Henrietta Macartney (1908). Our First Ambassador to China: An Account of the Life of George, Earl of Macartney with Extracts from His Letters, and the Narrative of His Experiences in China, as Told by Himself, 1737-1806, from Hitherto Unpublished Correspondence and Documents. London : John Murray. [digitized by University of Hong Kong Libraries, Digital Initiatives, "China Through Western Eyes." ]
• Rockhill, William Woodville. "Diplomatic Missions to the Court of China: The Kotow Question I," The American Historical Review, Vol. 2, No. 3 (Apr., 1897), pp. 427–442.
• Rockhill, William Woodville. "Diplomatic Missions to the Court of China: The Kotow Question II," The American Historical Review, Vol. 2, No. 4 (Jul., 1897), pp. 627–643.

Category:1711 births Category:1799 deaths Category:Qing Dynasty emperors Category:18th-century Chinese monarchs Category:Monarchs who abdicated