User:Benjah-bmm27/degree/3/KIBM
Appearance
Heterocycles, KIBM
[edit]Azoles
[edit]- 1,3-azoles
- 1,2-azoles
- Other azoles
- Metallacycles
Reactivity
[edit]- 1,3-azoles tend to undergo clean electrophilic substitution at C5, but are less reactive than pyrrole
- 1,2-azoles generally undergo electrophilic substitution at C4
Synthesis
[edit]- Imidazoles from α-aminoketones and nitriles
- Thiazoles from α-haloketones and thioamides
- Pyrazoles from 1,3-dicarbonyls and hydrazines
- Isoxazoles from 1,3-dicarbonyls and hydroxylamine
- 1,3-Dipolar cycloadditions: 1,3-dipoles (ozone, azides, nitrile oxides) + alkenes or alkynes
- Azide alkyne Huisgen cycloaddition - click chemistry, forms tetrazoles
- Nitrile oxides from chlorination of oximes, followed by elimination of hydrogen chloride
- Nitrile oxides + alkynes → isoxazoles (as seen in VKA's course)
Anion chemistry
[edit]- Lithiation by deprotonation of 1,3-azoles at C2 with butyllithium, followed by an electrophile (e.g. alkyl halide, carbonyl compound)
- 1,2-azoles are deprotonated at C3, but these can ring-open to give α-cyanoenolates, which react with electrophiles to form α-cyanoketones
Indoles
[edit]- Indole
- Can think of as pyrrole and benzene fused together
- 10 π electrons, so aromatic according to Hückel's rule
- Many important drugs are indoles, probably due to their similarity to the essential amino acid tryptophan...
- ...and its important natural derivatives, such as the neurotransmitter serotonin, which is important in regulating mood
- Serotonin analogues are important antidepressants: selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
- Polyhydroxylation of tryptophan as a mistake in the biosynthesis of serotonin may produce powerful hallucinogenic molecules (similar to mescaline), a process which may be implicated in schizophrenia
- Skatole (and 2-methylindole) stinks of dog poo - best avoided
Reactions of indoles
[edit]- Electrophilic substitution at C3 is preferred, but may also get 2,3-disubstitution
- Mannich reaction with formaldehyde and dimethylamine, forming the important building block gramine
- Electrophilic bromination with Br2
- Friedel-Crafts acylation with Ac2O and AcOH
- Vilsmeier reaction with DMF and POCl3
Indole syntheses
[edit]- Reissert indole synthesis, starting from ortho-nitrotoluenes
- Leimgruber modification
- ortho-nitrotoluenes + acetal of an amide → enamine
- enamine undergoes reductive cyclisation with acid (converts enamine to ketone) and Pd/H2 (reduces ArNO2 to ArNH2)
- Leimgruber modification
- Bischler-Möhlau indole synthesis
- Fischer indole synthesis
- Starts with a phenylhydrazine, which reacts with a ketone to form a hydrazone
- The hydrazone is protonated, tautomerises, then undergoes a [3,3]-sigmatropic rearrangement
- The weak N-N bond is broken, and a stronger C-C bond formed, although the aromaticity of the benzene ring is sacrificed
- Acid-catalysed elimination of ammonia leads to the indole
Carbazoles
[edit]- Fischer synthesis not useful because the requisite ketones exist as their phenol tautomers
- Use nitrene pathway or the Graebe-Ullmann reaction
Benzofurans
[edit]Reactions of benzofurans
[edit]- Benzofurans differ from indoles in that they tend to undergo electrophilic substitution in the 2 position, rather than the 3 position
- This is probably because furan is far less aromatic than pyrrole, so the benzene ring of a benzofuran has more influence on the substitution pattern
- Vilsmeier reaction, nitration and lithiation at occur at the 2 position
- With bromine, benzofurans undergo electrophilic addition across the furan double bond - suggesting less aromaticity than indole
Benzofuran syntheses
[edit]- O-Aryl hydroxylamines react with ketones to give O-aryl ketoximes, which cyclize and dehydrate in acid to benzofurans, by a mechanism analogous to that of the Fischer indole synthesis
- Sodium phenoxides react with α-bromoketones to give α-phenoxyketones, which cyclize and dehydrate in acid to benzofurans. This is the oxygen equivalent of the Bischler indole synthesis.
Quinolines and isoquinolines
[edit]- Quinoline
- Isoquinoline
- Both π deficient heterocycles
- Their physical properties and chemical reactivity are very similar, but their syntheses are very different
Reactions of quinolines and isoquinolines
[edit]Electrophilic aromatic substitution
[edit]- Quinoline undergoes nitration and bromination in the 5 and 8 positions (1:1 mixture of isomers)
- Isoquinoline is more selective and only the 5 position is substituted
Nucleophilic substitution
[edit]- Both are attacked by nucleophiles at the 2 position, much like imines
- A nitrogen-stabilised anion is the intermediate
- Acid and oxidation generates the substituted quinoline or isoquinoline
- Both undergo the Chichibabin reaction, with potassium amide and high temperatures, forming the 2-amino product
- 2-chloroquinolines and isoquinolines (much like 2-chloropyridines) are excellent electrophiles and undergo nucleophilic aromatic substitution at much lower temperatures. As chloride is a good leaving group, aromatisation is spontaneous.
Anion chemistry
[edit]- 2-alkylquinolines have an acidic proton that can be removed by BuLi, forming an aza enolate that reacts with electrophiles
Reduction
[edit]- There are a number of important dihydroquinoline and tetrahydroquinoline drugs, so reduction of quinolines is industrially important
- Lithium aluminium hydride reduces quinolines to dihydroquinolines, formally adding H2 across the N=C2 double bond
- H2/Pt reduces the pyridine ring, leaving the benzene ring intact, thereby forming the tetrahydroquinoline
- H2/Pd in concentrated hydrochloric acid reduces only the benzene ring, leaving the pyridine ring untouched
- HCl must protonate the nitrogen sp2 lone pair, somehow deactivating the pyridine ring to hydrogenation.
Quinoline syntheses
[edit]- Skraup synthesis
- Vicious conditions: aniline, glycerol, sulfuric acid, air, 180° C in nitrobenzene (high boiling solvent)
- Glycerol dehydrates to 1,3-propenediol, which tautomerises to 3-hydroxypropanal, then dehydrates to acrolein
- Aniline's nitrogen lone pair does Michael attack (1,4 or conjugate addition) on acrolein, forming 3-(phenylamino)propanal
- 3-(phenylamino)propanal cyclizes to 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinolin-4-ol, which dehydrates to 1,2-dihydroquinoline in the presence of acid and air
- Air oxidises 1,2-dihydroquinoline to 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinoline
Isoquinoline syntheses
[edit]Others
[edit]- Coumarins and chromones
- Bergapten (5-methoxypsoralen) - 1970s sunscreen, now known to be carcinogenic
- Chromone synthesis: Kostanecki-Robinson reaction