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User:Bamse/List of National Treasures (crafts-swords)

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† Meibutsu
* One of the ten students of Masamune
‡ One of the goban kaji
† Driver currently competing in Formula One
* Drivers who have won the Formula One World Championship
‡ Drivers who are competing in Formula One and have won the Formula One World Championship

tables

[edit]
  • make dates more precise (add century or era)
  • find lengths (or put minimum length based on definition of tachi, tanto,...)
  • find meaning of all meibutsu

sword mountings (koshirae)

[edit]

In order to protect and preserve it, a polished Japanese sword needs a scabbard.[1] A fully mounted scabbard (koshirae) may consist of a lacquered body, a taped hilt, a sword guard (tsuba) and decorative metal fittings.[1] Though the original purpose was to protect a sword from damage, from early times on Japanese sword mountings became a status symbol and were used to add dignity.[2] Starting in the Heian period, a sharp distinction was made between swords designed for use in battle and those for ceremonial use.[3] Tachi long swords were worn edge down suspended by two cords or chains from the waist belt. The cords were attached to two eyelets on the scabbard.[4]

Decorative sword mountings of the kazari-tachi type carried on the tradition of ancient straight Chinese style tachi and were used by nobles at court ceremonies until the Muromachi period. They contained a very narrow crude unsharpened blade. Two mountain-shaped metal fittings were provided to attach the straps to and the scabbard between them was covered by another (tube) fitting. The hilt was covered with ray skin and the scabbard typically decorated in maki-e or mother of pearl.[3]

Another type of mounting that became fashionable around the mid Heian period is the kenukigata or hair-tweezer style named for the characteristically shaped hilt, which is pierced along the center. In this style, the hilt is fitted with an ornamental border and did not contain any wooden covering. Like kazari-tachi, swords with this mounting were used for ceremonial purposes but also in warfare as an example held at Ise Grand Shrine shows.[5]

From the end of the Heian and into the Kamakura period, hyōgo-gusari[nb 1]were fashionable mountings for tachi. Along the edge of both the scabbard and the hilt they were decorated with a long ornamental border. They were originally designed for use in battle and worn by high-ranking generals together with armour; but in the Kamakura period they were made due to their gorgeous appearance exclusively for the dedication at temples and Shinto shrines. The corresponding blades from that time are unusable.[6]

During the Kamakura and Muromachi period, samurai wore a short sword known as koshigatana in addition to the long tachi. Koshigatana were stuck directly into the belt in the same way as later the katana and uchigatana.[4] They had a mounting without a guard (tsuba). The corresponding style is known as aikuchi ("fitting mouth) as the mouth of the scabbard meets the hilt directly without intervening guard.[7]

intro

[edit]
from left to right: naginata, tsurugi, tantō, uchigatana and tachi (not to scale)

Metal casting was introduced to Japan from Korea and China together with iron tools and weapons such as knives, axes, swords or spears during the Yayoi period from about 300 BC to 300 AD.[8][9][10][10][11] Shortly thereafter, Chinese, Korean and later early Japanese swordsmiths produced all of these locally.[12][13] Swords were forged imitating Chinese blades.[14] They were mostly straight chokutō with faulty tempering. Worn slung from the waist, they were likely used on foot as stabbing and slashing weapons.[14][15] Swordmaking centers developed in Yamato, San'in and Mutsu producing various types of blades such as tsurugi, tōsu and tachi.[14][16] Flat double-edged (hira-zukuri) blades first appeared in the Kofun period and around the mid-Kofun period swords evolved from thrusting to cutting weapons.[16][16] The 8th century chronicles Nihon Shoki and Kojiki hint that in ancient times swords were not only weapons but also objects of worship. In fact one of the Imperial Regalia of Japan is a sword, swords have been discovered in ancient tumuli or handed down as treasures of Shinto shrines or Buddhist temples.[12][16] Excavated swords are typically 60–70 cm (24–28 in) long.[15] Few of these ancient blades (jokotō) remain due to humidity which corrodes iron.[17][11][16] Four ancient chokutō and one tsurugi handed down in possession of temples and shrines have been designated as National Treasure craft items.[nb 2] A notable collection of 55 swords and other weapons from the 8th century have been preserved in the Shōsōin collection. Being under the supervision of the Imperial Household Agency, neither these items nor the well known Kogarasu Maru are National Treasures.[18][19]


The transition from straight jokotō or chokutō to deliberately curved and much more refined Japanese swords (nihontō) occurred gradually over a long period of time.[20] There are few extant examples of swords of the transition period.[20] Some of the 8th century Shōsōin swords and the Kogarasu Maru already show a deliberately produced curve.[21] Yasutsuna from Hōki Province forged curved swords that are considered to be of excellent quality. There has been little stylistic change since then, and his works are considered to be the start of the old sword (kotō) period which ended in 1596 and produced the most famous Japanese swordsmiths.[22] According to various sources Yasutsuna lived in the Daidō era (806–809), around 900, or more likely was a contemporary of Sanjō Munechika and active in the Eien era (987, 988).[20][16][23] The change in blade shape was assisted by the introduction of horses (after 941) into the battlefield which made sweeping cutting strokes with curved swords more effective than stabbing lunges.[12][21][23][24] Imparting a deliberate curve is a considerable technological feat as the natural bending due to hammering the edge needs to be reversed. Essential for the construction was the development of a ridge (shinogi) along the blade.[25] Various military conflicts during the Heian period helped to perfect the techniques of swordmanship and led to the establishment of swordsmiths around the country.[24] They settled in locations close to administrative centers, where there was a high demand of swords, and in areas with easy access to ore, charcoal and water.[22] Originally smiths did not belong to any school or tradition.[26] Around the mid to late Heian period distinct styles of workmanship developed in certain regional centers.[27] The best known of these schools or traditions are the gokaden (five traditions) which each produced a distinct style of workmanship and were associated with the five provinces: Yamashiro, Yamato, Bizen, Sagami/Sōshū and Mino. Together these five schools produced about 80% of all kotō period swords.[22][28][26] Each school consists of several branches.[22] In the late Heian period, Emperor Go-Toba, a sword lover, summoned swordsmiths from the Awataguchi school of Yamashiro, the Ichimonji school of Bizen and the Aoe school of Bitchū Province to forge swords at his palace. These smiths, known as goban kaji　(honorable rotation smiths) are considered to have been the finest swordsmiths of their time.[nb 3][26][29] Go-Toba selected from among these Awataguchi Hisakuni and Ichimonji Nobufusa to collaborate on his own tempering.[30] Early Kamakura period tachi had an elaborately finished tang and an elegant dignified overall shape (sugata).[26] Tantō daggers from the same period showed a slight outward curvature.[29]


Around the mid-Kamakura period, the warrior class reached its peak of prosperity.[31] Consequently sword production was thriving in many parts of Japan.[31] Following the Mongol invasions of 1274 and 1281, smiths aimed at producing stronger swords that would pierce the heavy armour of the invaders. To achieve this, tachi became wider, thicker with an overall grand appearance (sugata) and a straight temper line.[31][32] As there was no more a Mongol threat towards the end of the Kamakura period this trend was partially reversed as blades grew longer with a more dignified shape than in the mid-Kamakura period.[32] However the so called "unchangeable smiths" including Rai Kunitoshi, Rai Kunimitsu, Osafune Nagamitsu and Osafune Kagemitsu continued to produce swords of the elegant style of the late Heian/early Kamakura period. These swords were particularly popular with Kyoto's aristocracy.[32] The production of tantō daggers increased considerably towards the late Kamakura period.[33] Master tantō makers include Awataguchi Yoshimitsu, Rai Kunitoshi, Shintōgo Kunimitsu, Osafune Kagemitsu, Etchū Norishige and Samonji.[33] The naginata appeared as a new weapon in the late Kamakura period.[33] The confrontation between the Northern and Southern Court resulted in a 60 year long power struggle between warrior lords known as the Nanboku-chō period and to a tremendous demand for swords.[34] The stylistic trends of the Kamakura period continued and tachi were characterized by magnificent shape, growing in overall length and the length of the point (kissaki). They were generally wide and disproportionately thin.[34] Similarly tantō grew in size to 30–43 cm (12–17 in) and became known as ko-wakizashi or sunnobi tantō (extended knives).[35] But also tantō shorter than those of the Kamakura period were being forged.[35] Enormous tachi called seoi-tachi (shouldering swords), nodachi (field swords) and ōdachi with blades 120–150 cm (47–59 in) long were forged.[nb 4][36] The high demand for swords during feudal civil wars after 1467 (Sengoku period) resulted in mass production and low quality swords as swordsmiths no longer refined their own steel.[37] There are no national treasure swords from after this period.

traditions

[edit]

Yamashiro

[edit]

The Yamashiro tradition was centered around the capital Kyoto in Yamashiro Province where swords were in high demand. Sanjō Munechika (c. 987) was a forerunner of this tradition and the oldest smith known by name working in Kyoto.[38] Various branches of the Yamashiro tradition are distinguished: Sanjō, Awataguchi, Rai, Ayanokoji, Nobukuni, Hasebe and Heian-jo.[39]

Yamashiro tradition sugata[j 1] is characterized by torii-zori[j 2], smaller mihaba[j 3], slightly bigger kasane[j 4], funbari[j 5], small kissaki[j 6]. The jihada[j 7] is dense small-grained itame-hada[j 8] and the hamon[j 9] is suguha[j 10] in nie[j 11] or small grain nie.[28]

Sanjō , Ayanokoji and Hasebe schools
[edit]

The Sanjō branch, named after a street in Kyoto and founded by Sanjō Munechika around 1000, is the oldest school in Yamashiro Province.[40] In the early Kamakura period it was the most advanced school of swordmanship in Japan.[27] Sanjō Munechika's works, together with those of Yasutsuna from Hōki Province are some of the oldest curved Japanese swords and mark the start of the old sword (kotō) period.[39] Sanjō school's sugata[j 1] is characterized by a much narrower upper area compared to the bottom, small kissaki[j 6], torii-zori[j 2] and deep koshi-zori[j 12]. The jihada[j 7] uses good quality steel with abundant ji-nie[j 13] and chikei[j 14], small mokume-hada[j 15] mixed with wavy large hada. The hamon[j 9] is bright and covered with thick nioi.[j 16] It is based on suguha[j 10] mixed with small chōji midare.[j 17] Hataraki[j 18] appear along the temper line.[40]

Possibly a branch of the Sanjō school, the Ayanokoji school is named after a place in Kyoto where the smith Sadatoshi lived.[41][42] Ayanokoji tachi are slender with small kissaki[j 6]. The jihada[j 7] uses soft jigane[j 19], small mokume-hada[j 15] mixed with masame-hada[j 20], abundant ji-nie[j 13], yubashiri[j 21] and chikei[j 14]. The temper line is small chōji midare.[j 17], nie[j 11] with lots of activity[j 18].[42]

A later branch of the Yamashiro tradition, was the Hasebe school which was active in the Nanboku-chō period and early Muromachi period.[43] It was founded by Hasebe Kunishige who was originally from Yamato Province, then he travelled to Sagami Province where he became one of the Ten great students of Masamune (Masamune juttetsu) and eventually went to Kyoto to found the Hasebe school.[44][43] The sugata[j 1] is characterized by a wide mihaba[j 3], thin kasane[j 4] and shallow sori[j 22]. The jihada[j 7] is fine itame-hada[j 8] mixed with masame-hada[j 20], chikei[j 14] and abundant ji-nie.[j 13] The hamon[j 9] is of irregular width, narrow and small-patterned at the bottom and wide and large-patterned at the top of the blade. There are many tobiyaki[j 23] and hitatsura[j 24] as well as rough nie.[j 11][43]

Awataguchi school
[edit]

Located in the Awataguchi district of Kyoto, the Awataguchi school was active in the early and mid-Kamakura period[38][45] Leading members of the school were Kunitomo whose tachi are similar to those of Sanjō Munechika and Tōshirō Yoshimitsu, one of the most celebrated of all Japanese smiths.[38] There are no significant Awataguchi smiths after Yoshimitsu and the school was eventually replaced by the Rai school as foremost school in Yamashiro Province.[45]

Characteristic for this school are engraved gomabashi[j 25] near the back ridge (mune), a long and slender tang (nakago), and the use of two-character signatures.[45] Awataguchi sugata[j 1] is in the early Kamakura period similar to that of the Sanjō school; later in the mid-Kamakura period it became ikubi kissaki[j 26] with a wide mihaba[j 3]. Tantō were normal sized with slight uchi-zori.[j 27][28] The jihada[j 7] is nashiji-hada[j 28] of finest quality, dense small grain mokume-hada[j 15] mixed with chikei[j 14], yubashiri[j 21] appear, thick nie[j 13] all over the ji[j 29] The hamon[j 9] is narrow, suguha[j 10] mixed with small chōji midare[j 17].[28][45]


Rai school
[edit]

The Rai school, active from the mid-Kamakura period through the Nanboku-chō period, is the successor of the Awataguchi school as foremost school in Yamashiro Province.[45] It was founded by Kuniyuki in the 13th century, though sometimes his father Kuniyoshi from the Awataguchi school is credited for it.[38][46] The name, "Rai" refers to the fact that smiths of this school preceded their signatures with the character "来" ("rai").[45] Especially in the work of Kunitsugu, Rai school works show some characteristics of the later Sōshū tradition.[46]

Rai school sugata[j 1] resembles that of the late Heian/early Kamakura period being both gentle and graceful, but grander and with a more vigorous workmanship. Starting with Kunimitsu, the kissaki[j 6] becomes larger. The jihada[j 7] is small grain mokume-hada[j 15], dense with ji-nie[j 13], yubashiri[j 21] and chikei[j 14]. The quality of the jigane[j 19] is slightly inferior to that of the Awataguchi school. The hamon shows medium suguha[j 10] with chōji midare[j 17].[46]


  • branches:[39]
    • Sanjo (Heian): Munechika, Yoshiie, Kanenaga, Kuninaga; (Ashikaga p): Yoshinori
    • Awataguchi (Kamak): Hisakuni, Kuniyasu, Kunitsuna, Norikuni, Kuniyoshi, Yoshimitsu
    • Rai (Kamak): Kuniyuki, Kunitoshi, Ryokai, Mitsukane, Kunimitsu, Kunitsugu
    • Ayanokoji (Kamak): Sadatoshi, Sadayoshi, Sadatsugu
    • Nobukuni (Ashikaga): Nobukuni, Nobusada
    • Hasebe (Ashikaga): Kunishige, Kuninobu
    • Heian-ji (Ashikaga): Nagayoshi
  • rai school replaced awataguchi school as main school in yamashiro prov. around mid kamakura p.[41]

Soshu/Sagami

[edit]

The Sōshū (or Sagami) tradition owes its origin to the patronage of the Kamakura shogunate set up by Minamoto no Yoritomo in 1185 in Kamakura, Sagami Province.[38][47] Though the conditions for swordsmithing were not favourable, the intense military atmosphere and high demand for swords helped to establish the school.[47] The tradition is said to begin in 1249, when Awataguchi Kunitsuna from the Yamashiro tradition forged a tachi for Hōjō Tokiyori[38] Other recognized founders were Ichimonji Sukezane and Saburo Kunimune, both from the Bizen tradition.[nb 5][48][47] The Sōshū tradition's popularity increased after the Mongol invasions (1274, 1281).[32] It is characterized by tantō daggers that were produced in large quantities; but also tachi and katana were forged.[38] With the exception of wider and shorter so called "kitchen knives" (hōchō tantō), daggers were 24–28 cm (9.4–11.0 in) long, uncurved or with a slight curve toward the cutting edge (uchi-zori).[49]

During the early Sōshū tradition, from the late Kamakura period to the beginning of the Nanboku-chō period, smiths aimed at producing swords that exhibited splendor and toughness, incorporating some of the best features of the Bizen and Yamashiro traditions.[48] The Midare Shintōgo by Awataguchi Kunitsuna's son, Shintōgo Kunimitsu, is considered to be the first true Sōshū tradition blade.[48] Shintōgo Kunimitsu was the teacher of Yukimitsu and of Masamune who is widely recognized as Japan's greates sword smith.[38] Together with Sadamune whose work looks modest compared to Masamune's, these are the most representative smiths of the early Sōshū tradition.[48]

Sōshū tradition sugata[j 1] is characterized by a shallow torii-zori[j 2], bigger mihaba[j 3], smaller kasane[j 4], medium or large kissaki[j 6]. The jihada[j 7] is mostly itame-hada[j 8] with ji-nie and chikei and the hamon[j 9] is gunome[j 30], midareba[j 31] and hitatsura[j 24]. Nie[j 11], sunagashi[j 32] and kinsuji[j 33] are often visible in the hamon.[28]


  • grain most often very fine and compact itame; various hamon but in case of masamune usually midareba and made up of very bright and active nie[49]
  • in nanboku-cho period: soshu tradition was at peak and even adopted in bizen province -> result was so-den bizen; yamashiro and yamato in decline, mino in rise[36]

Yamato

[edit]

The Yamato tradition is the oldest of all and reaches back to the 4th century and the introduction of ironworking techniques from the mainland.[49] According to legend, the smith Amakuni forged the first single-edged long swords with curvature (tachi) around 700.[50] Even though there is no proof for this event or date, the earliest Japanese swords were probably forged in Yamato Province.[41] During the Nara period, many good smiths were located around the capital in Nara. They moved to Kyoto when it became capital at the beginning of the Heian period but about 1200 smiths gathered again in Nara when the various sects with center in Nara rose to power in the Kamakura period and needed weapons to arm their monks. The Yamato tradition is therefore closely associated with the warrior monks of Nara.[47][51] Yamato tradition sugata[j 1] is characterized by a deep torii-zori[j 2], high shinogi[j 34] and slightly extended kissaki[j 6]. The jihada[j 7] is mostly masame-hada[j 20] and the hamon[j 9] is suguha[j 10] with rough nie[j 11]. The bōshi[j 35] is mainly ko-maru[j 36].[28][52] Generally the style of Yamato blades is thought of as restrained, conservative and static.[51] Five major schools or branches of the Yamato tradition are distinguished: Senjuin[nb 6], Shikkake, Taima[nb 7], Tegai[nb 8] and Hosho[nb 9], four of which are represented by national treasure swords.[47][53]


Bitchū Province

[edit]

The mainstream school of Bitchū Province was the Aoe school named after a place presently located in Kurashiki.[54] It appeared at the end of the Heian period and thrived in the ensuing Kamakura period.[55] The quality of Aoe swords was recognized early on as three out of the 12 smiths at the court of Emperor Go-Toba were from this school.[54] Five tachi blades of the early aoe school (ko-aoe, before the Ryakunin era, 1238/39) have been designated national treasures.[54] The ko-aoe school consists of two families employing a similar style of swordmanship that did not change much over time.[54] The first family represented by the founder Yasutsugu[nb 10] and among others Sadatsugu, Tametsugu, Yasutsugu (the one in this list) and Moritoshi.[54] The second family, named "Senoo" was founded by Noritake who was followed by Masatsune and others.[54] Ko-Aoe produced slender tachi with small kissaki[j 6] and deep koshi-zori.[j 12] A distinctive feature of this school is the jihada[j 7] which is chirimen-hada[j 37] and sumigane[j 38] (dark and plain steel. The hamon[j 9] is midare based on suguha[j 10] with ashi[j 39] and yō.[j 40] The boshi is midare komi[j 41] or suguha[j 10] with a short kaeri[j 42], yakitsume.[j 43][56]

Hoki Province

[edit]

The work of Yasutsuna who lived in Hōki Province predates that of the Ko-Bizen school. Though old sources date his activity to the early 9th century, he was probably a contemporary of Sanjō Munechika together with whom he is attributed as forging the first curved Japanese swords.[57] Yasutsuna is also the founder of the school with the same name. Two tachi of the Yasutsuna school have been designated as national treasures: one, the Dōjigiri Yasutsuna by Yasutsuna has been named the "most celebrated of all Japanese swords"; the other is by his student Yasuie.[58] The Dōjigiri has torii-zori[j 2], distinct funbari[j 5], small kissaki[j 6]; its jihada[j 7] is mokume-hada[j 15] with abundant ji-nie[j 13]. The hamon[j 9] is small midare consisting of thick nioi[j 16] and abundant small nie[j 11]. There are many vivid ashi[j 39] visible. Yō[j 40] and kinsuji[j 33] appear inside the hamon.[57][59] The work of other school members including Yasuie's is characterized by coarse mokume-hada[j 15], black jigane[j 19], ji-nie[j 13] and chikei.[j 14] The hamon is small midare[j 44] consisting of nie[j 11] with kinsuji[j 33] and sunagashi.[j 32][57]

Bizen Province

[edit]

Being close to the continent, Bizen Province had been a center of iron production and swordmaking since early times.[50][22] Conditions for sword production were ideal: good iron sand, charcoal and water were readily available and the San'yōdō road ran right through it.[60] Indeed, Bizen has been the only province to produce swords continuously from the Heian to the Edo period.[60] In kotō times, a large number of skilled swordsmiths lived along the lower reaches of the Yoshii river around Osafune making it the largest center of sword production in Japan.[22][61][62] Bizen province not only dominated in the shear numbers of produced blades but also in quality; and Bizen swords have long been celebrated for excellent swordmanship.[41][62] The peak of the Bizen tradition marked by a gorgeous and luxurious style is reached in the mid-Kamakura period.[62] Later, in the 13th century, the Ichimonji and Osafune schools maintained the Heian style of the Ko-Bizen, the oldest school in Bizen province.[50] After the 13th century, swords became wider and the point (kissaki) longer, most likely as a response to the thick armour of the invading mongols.[50] Mass production due to heavy demand for swords from the early 15th to the 16th century led to a lower quality of blades.[50] The Bizen tradition is associated with a deep koshi-zori[j 12], a standard mihaba[j 3], bigger kasane[j 4] with medium kissaki[j 6]. The jihada[j 7] is itame-hada[j 8] often accompanied by utsuri.[j 45] The hamon is chōji midare[j 17] in nioi deki.[j 16][28]

  • bizen province dominated sword production in both quantity and quality: ichimonji in early kamakura p., osafune school (founded by mitsutada) flourished from mid kamakura to end of muromachi p.[41]
  • difficult to distinguish early kamakura works of ko-bizen and ichimonji schools; from mid kamakura period differences appear (also osafune school gets founded then)[62]


  • mid kamakura period:[62]
    • jigane soft and well forged, usually larger mokume-hada combined with o-hada; there is also midare utsuri or choji utsuri and on occasion jifu utsuri
    • hamon is mainly choji midare in nioi deki; o-choji midare appears and is very brilliant (with a luxurious aspect)
    • boshi generally midare komi in porportion to the hamon

late kamakura period:[62]

    • jigane is soft mokume-hada and (like in early kam. period) has utsuri
    • in hamon kataochi gunome becomes more popular
    • boshi looks ko-maru but its top is pointed and to have nioi

nanboku-cho[62]

    • sugata changed significantly from that of earlier times
    • jigane soft with utsuri and o-mokume-hada combined with a dark jigane that looks like a swimming catfish or eel; also ko-mokume-hada with a pattern that stands out and with utsuri
    • boshi of each school has its own distinct characteristics
Ko-Bizen
[edit]

The oldest branch of swordmaking in Bizen Province is the Ko-Bizen ("old Bizen) school.[63] It was founded by Tomonari[nb 11] who lived around 1100.[63][22] The school flourished in the late Heian period (10th–12th century) and continued into the Kamakura period.[50][62] Three great names: Kanehira, Masatsune and Tomonari are associated with this school.[50]Ko-Bizen tachi are generally thin[nb 12], have a strong koshi-zori[j 12] and small kissaki[j 6]. The grain is itame-hada[j 8] or small itame-hada and the hamon[j 9] is small midare[j 44] made of nie[j 11] in combination with chōji[j 17] and gunome.[j 30]



Ichimonji
[edit]

The Ichimonji school was founded by Norimune in the late Heian period.[50] Together with the Osafune it was one of the main branches of the Bizen tradition and continued through the Kamakura period with a peak of prosperity before the mid-Kamakura period.[62][64] The name Ichimonji (一文字, lit. character "one") refers to the signature (mei) on swords of this school: many smiths used to sign only with a horizontal line (read as "ichi", translated as "one"), however there are also signatures that contain only the smith's name or "ichi" plus the smith's name or even unsigned blades.[64] During the early Ichimonji school (Ko-Ichimonji), the "ichi" signature looks like a diagonal line and might have been a mark instead of a character. From the mid-Kamakura period however "ichi" is definitely the character and not a mark.[64] Some of the Ichimonji smiths lived in Fukuoka village, Osafune and others in Yoshioka village. They are known as Fukuoka-Ichimonji and Yoshioka-Ichimonji respectively and were typically active in the early/mid Kamakura period (Fukuoka-Ichimonji) and the late Kamakura period (Yoshioka-Ichimonji) respectively.[64]

The workmanship of early Ichimonji smiths such as Norimune resembles that of the Ko-Bizen school: tachi have a narrow mihaba[j 3], deep koshi-zori[j 12], funbari[j 5] and an elegant sugata[j 1] with small kissaki.[j 6] The hamon[j 9] is small midare or small midare with small chōji midare[j 17] in small nie.[j 11][64]

Around the middle Kamakura period tachi have a wide mihaba[j 3] and grand sugata[j 1] with medium kissaki[j 6] such as ikubi kissaki.[j 26] The hamon is large chōji midare[j 17] or juka chōji[j 46] in nioi deki[j 16] and irregular width. Particularly the hamon[j 9] of tachi with just the "ichi" signature is wide chōji. The hamon of this period's Ichimonji school is one of the most gorgeous amongst kotō smiths and comparable to Masamune and his students' works.[64] The most characteristic works for mid-Kamakura period Ichimonji school were produced by Yoshifusa, Sukezane and Norifusa.[64] Yoshifusa, who left the largest number of blades, and Norifusa might each in fact have been several smiths by the same name.[64]

Osafune school
[edit]

Founded by Mitsutada in the mid-Kamakura period in Osafune, the Osafune school continued through to the end of the Muromachi period.[62][61] It was for a long time the most prosperous of the Bizen schools and a great number of master swordsmiths belonged to it.[61] Nagamitsu (also called Junkei Nagamitsu), the son of Mitsutada, is the 2nd generation and Kagemitsu represents the 3rd generation.[61]

Osafune sugata[j 1] is characteristic for the period and similar to that of the Ichimonji school: a wide mihaba[j 3] and ikubi kissaki.[j 26] After the 13th century the curve moved from koshi-zori[j 12] to torii-zori.[j 2][50] Other stylistic features depend on the swordsmith. In the hamon[j 9], Mitsutada adopted the Ichimonji style of large chōji midare[j 17] mixed with juka choji[j 46] and a unique kawazuko choji;[j 47] Nagamitsu produced also chōji midare hower with a different pattern and mixed with considerable gunome midare.[j 30] Starting with Kagemitsu the hamon became suguha[j 10] and gunome midare.[j 30] Kagemitsu is also credited with the invention of kataochi gunome.[j 48] Mitsutada's bōshi[j 35] is midare komi[j 41] with short kaeri[j 42] or yakitsume.[j 43] Nagamitsu and Kagemitsu use a sansaku bōshi.[j 49] Kagemitsu is also known as one of the finest engravers particularly through his masterpiece Koryū Kagemitsu.[61]


  • classified into several schools: ko-Osafune, kanemitsu, oei-bizen, sue-bizen[61]


Saburo Kunimune school
[edit]

Like the Osafune school, the Saburo Kunimune school was located in Osafune, however its members are from a different lineage to that of Mitsutada and his school.[65][66] The name, "saburo", refers to the fact that Kunimune, the founder of the school, was the third son of Kunizane.[66] Kunimune later moved to Sagami Province to found the Sōshū tradition together with Ichimonji Sukezane.[65] There were two generations of Kunimune and their work is very difficult to distinguish.[65][66] This school's workmanship is similar to that of other smiths of the time but with a slightly coarse jihada[j 7] and with hajimi.[j 50][65]

Etchu province

[edit]

Two of Masamune's ten excellent students (juttetsu), Norishige and Gō Yoshihiro lived in Etchū Province at the end of the Kamakura period.[67] While none of Gō Yoshihiro's works is singed, there are extant signed tantō and tachi by Norishigi.[43] One tantō by Norishige and two katana by Gō Yoshihiro have been designated as national treasures. Generally Norishige's sugata[j 1] is characteristic of the time: tantō are with not-rounded fukura[j 51] and uchi-zori[j 27], thick kasane[j 4] and steep slopes of iori-mune.[j 52] The jihada[j 7] is matsukawa-hada[j 53] with thick ji-nie[j 13], lots of chikei along the o-hada.[j 54] The jigane[j 19] is not equal to that of Masamune or Gō Yoshihiro. Norishige hamon[j 9] is relatively wide and made up of bright and larger nie[j 11] based in notare[j 55] mixed with suguha[j 10] chōji midare[j 17] or with gunome midare.[j 30] Gō Yoshihiro produced various sugata[j 1] with either small kissaki[j 6] and narrow mihaba[j 3] or with wider mihaba and larger kissaki. His jihada[j 7] is identical to that of the Awataguchi school in Yamashiro Province: soft jigane[j 19], small mokume-hada[j 15] mixed with wavy o-hada.[j 54] Thick ji-nie becomes yubashiri[j 21] with chikei.[j 14] The hamon[j 9] has an ichimai[j 56] or ichimonji bōshi[j 57] with ashi[j 39] and abundant nie.[j 11] The kaeri[j 42] is short or yakitsume.[j 43][43]

Kyushu

[edit]

Through rich cultural exchange with China and Korea facilitated by the proximity to the continent, iron manufacture had been practiced on Kyūshū (Saikaidō) since earliest times. Swordsmiths were active from the Heian period onwards.[54][68] Initially the Yamato school's influence is evident al over the island.[68] However, the great distance to other swordmaking centers such as Yamato or Yamashiro caused the workmanship to change little over times as smiths maintained old traditions and shunned innovations.[68] Kyūshū blades therefore demonstrate a classic workmanship.[69] The old Kyūshū smiths are represented by Bungo Yukihira from Bungo Province, the Miike school active in Chikugo Province and the Naminohira school of Satsuma Province.[69] Two old blades, one by Miike Mitsuyo and the other by Bungo Yukihira, and five later blades from the 14th century, have been designated as national treasures from Kyūshū. They originate from three provinces: Chikugo, Chikuzen and Bungo. Generally Kyūshū blades are characterized by a sugata[j 1] that looks old having a wide shinogi.[j 34] The jihada[j 7] is mokume-hada[j 15] that tends to masame-hada[j 20] or becomes ayasugi-hada.[j 58] The jigana[j 19] is soft and there are ji-nie[j 13] and chikei[j 14] present. The hamon[j 9] is small midare made up of nie[j 11] and based on suguha.[j 10] The edge of the hamon starts just above the hamachi.[j 59]

The work of Saemon Saburo Yasuyoshi (or Sa, Samonji, Ō-Sa) is much more sophisticated than that of other Kyūshū smiths.[70] As a student of Masamune he was influenced by the Sōshū tradition which is evident in his blades.[70]Sa was active from the end of the Kamakura period to the early Nanboku-chō period and was the founder of the Samonji school in Chikuzen Province to which also Yukihiro belonged.[70] He produced mainly tantō and a few extant tachi.[70] The Samonji school had a great influnce during the Nanboku-chō period.[70] Stylistically Ō-Sa's sugata[j 1] is typical for the end of the Kamakura period with a thick kasane[j 4], slightly large kissaki[j 6] and tantō that are unusually short, about 24 cm (9.4 in).[70]

Transition period

[edit]
  • warriors fighting on horseback -> sweeping strokes more important than stabbing lunges -> imparting curves in swords[21]
  • some swords of shosoin collection already have deliberately produced curve; also kogarasu maru has curve[21]
  • imparting a deliberate curve is a considerable technical feat:[25]
    • as smith hammers edge, the thicker side tends to curve toward the thin side; process needs to be reversed
    • difficult to curve blade near hilt while at the same time giving a slight curve to the hilt itself->out of necessity, later the curve was placed near the center or point
    • essential for curved blade is development of ridge (shinogi) construction (earliest/ancient swords were hira-zukuri)

koto period (900 to 1530)

[edit]
  • disintegration of peaceful civil administration under Fujiwara clan at latter heian period -> power only through warfare -> warriors on horseback (often with swords four feet long or more)[20]
  • predominant weapons: bow and arrows, naginata and swords[20]
  • sword became everyday weapon, carried constantly[20]
  • straight sword (for stabbing) was replaced by curved sword over a long transition period (few existant swords from transition period)[20]
  • about 900 Yasutsuna in hoki prov. forged excellent swords; very little stylistic change since then[20]
  • most famous jap. swordsmiths between 900 and 1450[22]

late heian to early kamakura (987-1231)

[edit]
  • transition from jokoto to nihonto (much more refined: surface grain pattern, temper line, tang; elegant shape)[23]
  • curved shape better for cutting[23]
  • curved swords appeared sometimes around the two centuries of the mid-Heian period (via transitional stages: kogarasu-maru and kenukigata[23]
  • in early heian period: generally peaceful but clans and nobles started to arm themselves to protect their land and property[24]
  • 948 government decree that forbade ordinary people to carry swords[24]
  • introduction (after 941) of horses in fighting favoured curved swords[24]
  • various fightings during heian period helped to perfect the swords and lead to the establishment of swordsmiths around the country[24]
  • Emperor Go-Toba was sword lover and summoned swordsmiths from yamashiro (awataguchi school), bizen (ichimonji school) and bitchu (aoe school) provinces to forge swords at his palace; these are considered to have been the finest swordsmiths of their day (goban kaji)[26][29]
    • according to the Showa Mei Zukushi (1312-1317), one of the oldest extant lists of swordsmiths, they were:[29]
      • Norimune, Nobufusa, Muneyoshi, Sukemune, Yukikuni, Sukenari, Sukenobu or Sukechika (Bizen)
      • Sadatsugu, Tsunetsugu, Tsuguie (Bitchu)
      • Kuniyasu, Kunitomo (Yamashiro)
  • go-toba selected Awataguchi Hisakuni and Ichimonji Nobufusa to collaborate on his own tempering[30]
  • early kamakura period tachi: 82-85cm long, deep tori-zori inclined to be koshi-zori, tapering mihabe with funbari, ko-kissaki, hiraniku, elegant dignified sugata; hi (simple design) and horimono finely engraved;[26]
  • swords produced by smiths not belonging to any particular school/tradition (majiwarimono); later yamashiro tradition followed by bizen[26]
  • tang of early kamakura blades elaborately finished (unlike earlier jokoto blades)[26]
  • tanto from mid-heian to early kamakura period: slight outward curvature[29]

mid to late kamakura period (1232-1333)

[edit]
  • by mid kamakura p., warriror class had reached peak of prosperity[31]
  • sword production was thriving in various regions; unique styles had been established by master smiths: bizen trad., yamashiro trad., awataguchi school, rai school, yamato trad., soshu/sagami trad.[31]
  • mid kamakura tachi: grand sugata (distinct from gentle and elegant sugata of heian and early kamakura p.), wide and less tapering mihaba, thicker kasane and stout ikubi kissaki[31]
  • modifications of nihonto after experiences of battles during mongol invasions (1274 and 1281): more modest suguha choji midare temper line (first by Nagamitsu); later kataochi gunome temper line of Kagemitsu (parallel developments in Rai and Awataguchi schools of yamashiro province)[32]
    • i.e. change from irregular pattern to a straight temper line (=suguha) due to belief that this would create stronger swords[32]
  • longer blades towards end of kamakura period with longer kissaki and more dignified shape than in mid-kamakura p. (swords not expected to pierce heavy armour (mongols) anymore)[32]
  • "unchangeable smiths" (includ. Rai Kunitoshi, Ryokai, Rai Kunimitsu, Enju Kunimura, Enju Kunisuke, Osafune Nagamitsu, Osafune Kagemitsu, Osafune Sanenaga, Ukai Unsho, ...) continued to produce swords of late heian/early kamakura periods' elegant style-> popular with kyoto aristocrats[32]
  • in late kamakura p. master smiths appeared in areas that were not previously known as sword centers: hoju in oshu district, Norishige in Etchu province, Kaneuji in Mino prov., Nio Kiyotsuna in Suo prov., Ryosai, Nyusai, Sairen, Jitsua, Samonji at Chikuzen prov., Miike Mitsuyo of Chikugo prov., Enju Kunimura, Kuniyasu, Kunisuke, Kuninobu, Kunitoki, Kuniyoshi of Higo prov., Naminohira Yukiyasu of Satsuma prov.[33]
  • tanto production increased remarkably during latter kamakura period[33]
    • masterful tanto makers include: Awataguchi Yoshimitsu, Rai Kunitoshi, Shintogo Kunimitsu, Osafune Kagemitsu, Etchu Norishige, Samonji[33]
    • mid kamakura tanto is of standard length (25-26cm)[33]
    • late kamakura tanto is hira-zukuri with uchi-zori, without curvature, longer than previous tanto[33]
  • naginata appeared in late kamakura p.[33]
  • Tenka go ken (天下五剣, "Five swords under heaven" / "five swords famous throughout the country"): owned by Ashikaga shogun family in muromachi p.; all produced prior to mid kamakura p.; still considered great masterpieces; three are NT, oni-maru kunitsuna is imperial property (not NT), juzu-maru tsunetsugu is owned by ???[33]

Nanboku-cho period (origin of odachi) (1333-1391)

[edit]
  • confrontation between northern and southern court lead to a 60 year power struggle between warrior lords and a tremendous demand for swords[34]
  • trend of kamakura p. (magnificent sugata, greater length and longer kissaki) continued in nanboku-cho era and became exaggerated: long blades with wide mihaba, large kissaki, shallow sori, thin kasane disproportionate to the wide mihaba[34]
  • enormous tachi called seoi-tachi (shouldering swords) and nodachi (field swords) with blades 120-150cm were forged; most of these weree shortened and reshaped into katana during the momoyama period[36]
  • tanto: hira-zukuri, mitsu-mune, wide mihaba, saki-zori, proper fukura, thin kasane, 30-43 cm long (therefore known as "sunnobi tanto"/"extended knives" or ko-wakizashi/"short swords")[35]
    • but also tanto shorter than those of kamakura period were forged: wide mihaba, thin kasane, slight sori[35]
  • nagamaki also became enormous in size: wide mihaba in monouchi area, saki-zori; most nagamaki were shortened later (it is rare to find any in original shape)[35]

Muromachi period

[edit]
  • during warring states (sengoku) period (=feudal civil wars after 1467) high demand for swords resulted in mass production and low quality swords (swordsmiths no longer refined their own steel)[37]

meibutsu

[edit]
  • kyoho meibutsu compiled by honami family in kyoho era[71]
  • 166 swords and 81 yakemi (blades that were burned destroying the hamon), all are koto blades from before nanboku-cho period[71]
    • 89 soshu, 68 yamashiro, 23 etchu, 23 bizen, 14 chikuzen, 8 yamato, 7 mino, 7 bungo, 5 bitchu[71]
    • 41 blades by masamune, 19 by sadamune, 16 toshiro yoshimitsu, 11, go yoshihiro, ...[71]
    • soshu blades highly prized at time of compilation, surprisingly few bizen blades[71]
    • today about 100 meibutsu exist[71]
  • info about nicknames, signatures, history of blades[71]
    • many named after their owner or for their sharpness or shape[71]
  • yoshimitsu, masamune and go yoshihiro were known as san saku (three great smiths) and their blades extremely popular with feudal lords[71]
  • also lists nicknames for groups of swords, such as "five great swords", "three great spears",... (details) [71]
  • 1719 honami family (hereditary sword appraisers to the tokugawa shogunate) were ordered by yoshimune (8th shogun) to make a written appraisal of all meito->kyoho meibutsucho[72]
  • each sword in book known as "meibutsu"[72]
  • kyoho meibutsucho lists all meito in possession of the shogun and daimyo but otherwise emphasizes sagami tradition of masamune and go yoshihiro at expense of bizen smiths[72]
  • three great smiths: yoshimitsu, masamune, yoshihiro[72]
  • honami compilers were subservient to feudal masters -> it has been argued that meibutsucho includes swords of inferior quality[72]
  • there are meito which are not included in meibutsucho, e.g. swords that had been hidden by certain daimyo houses[72]


meito ("swords with a name"/"famous swords")
  • Japan's finest swords:[73]
    • good shape appropriate to its function as tachi, katana,...
    • well constructed
    • strongly and finely forged
    • accurate temper line
    • all special features of school and period must be visible at first glance; but individual character of its own
    • tang should be as at the time of construction
    • should have signature
    • well known since time of manufacture (this implies that the sword must have a history; association with famous men or events)

by time

[edit]
  • swords by time:[74]
    • early heian period (794-1099): jokoto (pre-nihonto)
    • late heian period to early kamakura period (1100-1232): earliest japanese swords
    • mid to late kamakura period (1232-1333): many excellent smiths in many parts of japan; unique styles
    • nanboku cho (1333-1392): before this period all long blades were tachi
    • muromachi period (1392-1573): katana replaced tachi
    • azuchi momoyama: early shinto swords
    • edo period: shinto swords
    • late edo to early meiji: shinshinto, prohibition of wearing swords in public from 1876

notes

[edit]
  • who created, who ordered swords
  • how the sword shape changed over time and leading swordsmiths[75]
  • everything on mei/signatures[76]

types

[edit]

distinguished by length (measured in shaku)

  • tachi (大刀): chokuto or straight sword, ancient times, >60cm long, not curved, [77]
  • tachi (太刀): >60 cm long, curved, worn suspended from belt with blade edge facing the ground; primarily during koto times (i.e. before 1596)[77]
  • odachi: tachi longer than 90cm[77]
  • kodachi: tachi shorter than 60cm[77]
  • katana: >60cm long, curved, worn thrust through the belt with cutting edge upward, superseded tachi beginning in muromachi period (after 1392)[77]
  • tanto: <30cm, usually about 26cm; most constructed hira-zukuri (flat style) but sometimes also double-edged blades (moroha-zukuri) found[78]
  • naginata: long-hafted sword, no yokote and often with carved groove, wide blade, large point, long tang, dramatically curved[78]

provinces

[edit]
  • details of swords in provinces (nanboku-cho p.)[36]

five traditions (gokaden)

[edit]
  • five distinct styles of workmanship developed in five provinces (yamashiro,...) during koto times (later term was used to describe types in general without regard to region)[28]
  • gokaden traditions on the way to become established around mid to late heian period[27]
  • in early kamakura period, Sanjo school swordsmiths (living in Yamashiro) were most advanced[27]
  • location of smiths was governed by proximity to administrative centers (=high demand of swords), easy access to ore and charcoal, plentiful supply of water, mild climate[22]
  • five tradition schools produced about 80% of all koto period swords[22]
  • several branches of each tradition/school[22]


Yamashiro
  • In the early Kamakura period, the Sanjō branch of the Yamashiro tradition founded by Sanjō Munechika were the most advanced.[27]
  • sugata: torii-zori, smaller mihaba, slightly bigger kasane, funbari, ko-kissaki[28]
  • jihada: dense ko-itame-hada[28]
  • hamon: suguba in nie or ko-nie deki[28]
  • centered in kyoto; Munechika (c. 987) was a forerunner[39]
  • kyoto captial-> swords in great demand[39]
  • branches:[39]
    • Sanjo (Heian): Munechika, Yoshiie, Kanenaga, Kuninaga; (Ashikaga p): Yoshinori
    • Awataguchi (Kamak): Hisakuni, Kuniyasu, Kunitsuna, Norikuni, Kuniyoshi, Yoshimitsu
    • Rai (Kamak): Kuniyuki, Kunitoshi, Ryokai, Mitsukane, Kunimitsu, Kunitsugu
    • Ayakoji (Kamak): Sadatoshi, Sadayoshi, Sadatsugu
    • Nobukuni (Ashikaga): Nobukuni, Nobusada
    • Hasebe (Ashikaga): Kunishige, Kuninobu
    • Heian-ji (Ashikaga): Nagayoshi
  • rai school replaced awataguchi school as main school in yamashiro prov. around mid kamakura p.[41]
  • earliest smith with name known working at kyoto (yamashiro prov) is sanjo munechika[38]
Awataguchi school
  • located in awataguchi district of kyoto[38]
  • leading members: Kunitomo (tachi similar to those of munechika), toshiro yoshimitsu (one of the most celebrated of all smiths)[38]
  • located in Awataguchi, yamashiro province; from early to mid kamakura period[45]
  • no significant awataguchi smiths recognised after yoshimitsu[45]
  • school eventually replaced by rai school as foremost school in yamashiro[45]
  • characteristic of awataguchi school are engraved gomahashi near the mune[45]
  • long and slender nakago; usually two-character signatures[45]
  • sugata: in early kamakura period similar to sanjo school's; in mid-kamakura period it became ikubi kissaki tachi with a wide mihaba even at yokoto; tanto was normal sized with slight uchi-zori[45]
  • jihada: nashiji-hada; finest quality and only surpassed by sanjo school's jihada; dense ko-mokume-hada mixed with chikei, yubashiri appear, thick ji-nie all over the ji[45]
  • hamon: narrow hamon even narrower at top; suguha mixed with ko-choji midare; good deal of nie, nioi kogori, fine kinsuji, inazuma activity[45]
Rai school
  • true founder kuniyuki (13th c.)[38]
  • active from mid-kamakura period through nanboku cho period[45]
  • known as Rai school, because they preceded their signatures with character "rai"[45]
  • founded by kuniyoshi of awataguchi school or his son kuniyuki[46]
  • shows some charactistics of (later) soshu tradition, especially in work of kunitsugu[46]
  • sugata: resembles late heian/early kamakura sugata (i.e. both gentle and graceful) but grander and with vigorous workmanship; kissaki of kunimitsu and later smiths becomes larger[46]
  • jihada: ko-mokume-hada is dense with ji-nie, yubashiri and chikei; jigane quality slightly inferior to that of awataguchi school; usually rai-hada (=weak jigane with color and pattern that differs from ordinary jihada)[46]
  • hamon: chu-suguha mixed with ko-choji-midare, o-choji-midare and choji-midare based on suguha with ko-nie[46]
Others
Hasebe school
  • Hasebe Kunishige had close relationship with soshu smiths[43]
  • school was active from nanboku-cho to early muromachi p.[43]
  • sugata: wide mihaba, thin kasane, shallow sori[43]
  • jihada: fine itame-hada mixed with masame-hada, chikei and abundant ji-nie[43]
  • hamon: irregular width (narrow and small-patterned in bottom, wide and large-patterned at top), many tobiyaki and many hitatsura, rough nie, [43]
Sanjo school
  • founded by Sanjo Munechika...[40]
  • sugata: upper area much more narrow than bottom, ko-kissaki, torii-zori and deep koshi-zori[40]
  • jihada: good quality steel with abundant ji-nie and chikei, ko-mokume-hada mixed with wavy large hada[40]
  • hamon: nie structure, bright hamon line covered with thick nioi; hamon based on suguha mixed with ko-choji midare and ko-midare, hataraki appear along the hamon line[40]
Ayanokoji school
  • (sanjo?) sadatoshi...[42]
  • lived in ayanokoji, yamashiro province[42]
  • sugata: tachi are slender with ko-kissaki
  • jihada: soft jigane, ko-mokume-hada mixed with masame-hada, abundant ji-nie, yubashiri, chikei[42]
  • hamon: temper line is ko-choji-midare, nie with lot of activity such as fine kinsuji and inazuma[42]


Bizen
  • bizen province dominated sword production in both quantity and quality: ichimonji in early kamakura p., osafune school (founded by mitsutada) flourished from mid kamakura to end of muromachi p.[41]
  • sugata: deep koshi-zori, standard mihaba, bigger kasane with chu-kissaki[28]
  • jihada: itame-hada often accompanied by utsuri[28]
  • hamon: choji midare in nioi deki[28]
  • swordmaking introduced at very early stage because close to continent[22]
  • osafune village (east part of province) was center of swordmaking for 1000 years[22]
  • bizen has been largest center of sword production in koto times[62]
  • great number of skilled swordsmiths in koto times; bizen swords have been long celebrated for excellent swordmanship[62]
  • peak in mid kamakura period: gorgeous and luxurious style[62]
  • difficult to distinguish early kamakura works of ko-bizen and ichimonji schools; from mid kamakura period differences appear (also osafune school gets founded then)[62]
  • production sites of all bizen schools situated on the lower reaches of the yoshii river[61]
  • center of iron production since early times[50]
  • from late heian period to flooding of yoshii river in late 16th century, the area around osafune was perhaps the most prolific source of sword blades in japan[50]
  • in 13th century ichimonji and osafune schools maintained the heian style of the ko-bizen school[50]
  • after 13th century blades became wider and kissaki longer (practical development to fight mongols with thick armour)[50]
  • heavy demand for swords in early 15th to 16th cent. resulted in mass production and low quality swords[50]
  • mid kamakura period:[62]
    • jigane soft and well forged, usually larger mokume-hada combined with o-hada; there is also midare utsuri or choji utsuri and on occasion jifu utsuri
    • hamon is mainly choji midare in nioi deki; o-choji midare appears and is very brilliant (with a luxurious aspect)
    • boshi generally midare komi in porportion to the hamon

late kamakura period:[62]

    • jigane is soft mokume-hada and (like in early kam. period) has utsuri
    • in hamon kataochi gunome becomes more popular
    • boshi looks ko-maru but its top is pointed and to have nioi

nanboku-cho[62]

    • sugata changed significantly from that of earlier times
    • jigane soft with utsuri and o-mokume-hada combined with a dark jigane that looks like a swimming catfish or eel; also ko-mokume-hada with a pattern that stands out and with utsuri
    • boshi of each school has its own distinct characteristics
Ko-Bizen (early bizen school)
  • tomonari (c. 1100) was founder of school; followed by kanehira, sukehira, nobofusa, takahira, masatsune[22]
  • originated at end of heian period; continued into kamakura period[62]
  • earliest school of swordmaking in bizen province; active in later heian period[63]
  • founded by tomonari and masatsune[63]
  • flourished in late heian period (10th-12th century)[50]
  • three great names: kanehira, masatsune, tomonari[50]
  • tachi generally thin (with exceptions such as o-kanehira), strong koshi-zori and ko-kissaki
  • itame or ko-itame grain
  • hamon: ko-midare made up of nie in combination with choji and gunome


Ichimonji
  • continued through heian and kamakura periods[62]
  • founded by norimune[50]
  • thrived before middle kamakura p.[64]
  • some of the ichimonji smiths lived in Fukuoka village, Osafune (-> known as Fukuoka-Ichimonji) others in Yoshioka (->Yoshioka-Ichimonji)[64]
    • typically fukuoka-ichim. active in early/mid kamak. p.; yoshioka-ichim. active from late kamak. p. [64]
  • origin of name: many smiths used just ichi/one/horizontal line as signature/name; also signature that contain only smith's name; or signatures of ichi+smith's name[64]
    • in ko-ichimonji "ichi" looks like a diagonal line and might be a mark instead of a character; but from mid-Kam. p. ichi is definitely the character[64]
  • early ichimonji smiths like norimune demonstrate workmanship like ko-bizen smiths (i.e. tachi has narrow mihaba, deep koshi-zori, funbari, elegant sugata with ko-kissaki; hamon is ko-midare or ko-midare mixed with ko-choji in ko-nie-deki[64]
  • middle kamakura ichimonji: tachi has wide mi-haba and grand sugata with chu-kissaki like ikubi, hamon is o-choji-midare or juka-choji-midare in nioi-deki and irregular width and midare-utsuri appears. In particular, the hamon of tachi with just ‘Ichi’ is wide choji and some of yaki-gashira reach the shinogi line, also mune-yaki are seen and ichimai-boshi is occasionally seen. They temper the most gorgeous hamon amongst koto smiths as well as Masamune and his students[64]
  • Yoshifusa, Sukezane and Norifusa are the representative (most characteristic workmanship) smiths of the Ichimonji school in the middle of the Kamakura Period.[64]
  • yoshifusa left largest number of works; but there might be several smiths by the same name[64]
  • also possibly several norifusa[64]



Osafune school
  • after 13th century curve moved from koshi-zori to torii-zori[50]
  • ko-Osafune appeared at mid-Kamakura period[62]
  • for a long time the most prosperous of the bizen schools[61]
  • great number of master swordsmiths from mid kamakura through the end of muromachi p.[61]
  • classified into several schools: ko-Osafune, kanemitsu, oei-bizen, sue-bizen[61]
  • founder: mitsutada; his son was nagamitsu (name also used by later generation smiths; probably two-character sign. by first gen. nagamitsu = "Junkei nagamitsu")[61]
  • kagemitsu represents school's 3rd generation and kanemitsu the 4th[61]
  • styles:[61]
    • sugata characteristic of period and similar to ichimonji school's of the same period: wide mihabe, ikubi kissaki
    • hamon:
      • mitsutada: adopted ichimonji style o-choji midare mixed with juka choji and a unique kawazuko choji which consists of nioi;
      • nagamitsu also produced gorgeous choji midare but pattern is different from conspicious rise and fall of ichimonji school, and mixed with considerable gunome midare
      • since time of kagemitsu: suguha and gunome midare, kagemitsu also originated kataochi gunome
    • boshi:
      • Mitsutada: midare komi, short kaeri or yakitsume
      • nagamitsu: sansaku boshi (also kagemitsu and sanenaga)
  • kagemitsu one of the finest engravers -> "koryu kagemitsu" famous for engraving
Saburo Kunimune school
  • located in osafune (like osafune school); but different lineage to mitsutada and his school; founded by kunimune; [65][66]
  • name (saburo, 三郎) refers to the fact that Kunimune was the third son of Kunizane[66]
  • kunimune later moved to sagami and founded soshu tradition together with ichimonji [65]
  • two generations of smiths used the name kunimune!; very difficult to distinguish[65][66]
  • workmanship similar to that of other smiths of the period but with slightly coarse jihada and with hajimi[65]


Yamato
  • earliest nihonto smiths probably in yamato province[41]
  • sugata: deep torii-zori, high shinogi, slightly extended kissaki[28][52]
  • jihada: mostly masame-hada[28][52]
  • hamon: suguha with rough nie[28][52]
  • boshi: mainly ko-maru[52]
  • many good smiths around nara, when nara was capital (nara period); they moved to kyoto when kyoto became capital (heian period); about 1200 smiths gathered in nara when various religious sects with center in nara rose to power and needed weapons for their monks[47]
  • according to legend Amakuni forged the first single-edged longsword with curvature (tachi) around 700[50]
Soshu/Sagami
  • early soshu tradition (late kamakura to beginning of nanboku cho); middle soshu trad (nanboku cho), late (muromachi)[48]
  • early period:[48]
    • smiths aimed at producing swords that exhibited splendor and toughness
    • incorporated some of best features of bizen-den and yamashiro-den
    • at beginning of early period sowrdsmiths influenced by yamashiro-den
    • most representative smiths of early period: yukimitsu, masamune, sadamune
    • sadamune's work looks modest compared to masamune's
    • during early period: jihada is fine mokume with ji-nie (i.e. same as yamashiro; but soshu-den's jihada is combined with o-hada)
  • tradition includes swords made in kamakura in soshu/sagami prov[48]
  • recognized founders were: awataguchi kunitsuna, ichimonji sukezane and saburo kunimune (or possibly others whose work does not exist anymore)[48]
  • first blade in true sagami tradition is by shintogo kunimitsu: "midare shintogo"[48]
  • owes origin to patronage of military government following choice of kamakura as capital of bakufu, set up by shogun minamoto no yoritomo in 1185[38]
  • said to begin in 1249 (Awataguchi Kunitsuna, scion from yamashiro tradition forged tachi for hōjō regent Tokiyori[38]
  • Kunitsuna's son (shintogo Kunimitsu) was the teacher of yukimitsu and of masamune (outstanding exponent of sagami tradition and sword making in general)[38]
  • tradition is characterised by tanto (popular after mongol invasion) which were made in large numbers; but also tachi and katana[38]
  • tanto are between 24 and 28 cm long (exception are hocho tanto ("kitchen knife" which are wider and shorter), uncurved or slight uchi-zori[49]
  • grain most often very fine and compact itame; various hamon but in case of masamune usually midareba and made up of very bright and active nie[49]
  • in nanboku-cho period: soshu tradition was at peak and even adopted in bizen province -> result was so-den bizen; yamashiro and yamato in decline, mino in rise[36]
  • sugata: shallow torii-zori, bigger mihaba, smaller kasane, chu-kissaki and o-kissaki[28]
  • jihada: itame-hada with ji-nie and chikei[28]
  • hamon: gunome, midare-ba and hitatsura, nie, sunagashi and kinsuji are often seen in the hamon[28]
  • center was kamakura where minamoto yoritomo established his shogunate government in 1192[47]
  • conditions not favourable but intense military atmosphere[47]
  • three branches: yamashiro, bizen and soshu formed by smiths who came from respective provinces to sagami[47]
  • soshu tradition's popularity increased after mongol invasions[32]
Mino
  • sugata: shallow torii-zori and saki-zori with high shinogi, size of moto-haba and saki-haba almost the same, kissaki slightly extended[28]
  • jihada: dense itame-hada[28]
  • hamon: gunome in nioi deki, gunome midare and hiro-suguba, togari-ba or lines resembling spikes appear in the three types of hamon[28]
  • center was seki in today's gifu prefecture; established by students of masamune of soshu[79]
  • early works good and similar to soshu; later works poor[79]

others

[edit]
Kyushu
  • iron manufacture in bitchu, bizen and hoki provinces as well as on kyushu since earliest times; swordsmiths in these locals from heian to muromachi periods[54]
  • rich cultural exchange with china and korea; some of the earliest japanese swordsmiths might have worked in kyushu[68]
  • in early times yamato smithing influence is evident all over kyushu [68]
  • located far away from yamato/yamashiro -> smiths maintained old traditions and shunned innovations -> workmanship did not change much over time[68]
  • "old kyushu smiths" represented by Bungo Yukihira, the Miike school and Naminohira school[69]
  • generally kyushu smiths demonstrate classic workmanship[69]
  • sugata: looks old, shinogi is wide[68]
  • jihada: mokume-hada tends to be masame-hada or becomes ayasugi-hada, sometimes nashiji-hada; soft jigane, ji-nie and chikei[68]
  • hamon: ko-midare consisting of nie, based on suguha, nioi-guchi is neither bright nor clear; there is yakitoshi; edge of hamon starts just above hamachi[68]


chikuzen
samonji school
  • saemon saburo, yukihiro belonged to school[70]
  • Sa = Saemon Saburo Yasuyoshi = also called Samonji (monji=chinese character, because he signed with "sa") = O-sa (great sa)[70]
  • Sa's work is much more sophisticated than other Kyushu smiths' works;[70]
  • Sa (student of masamune) was influenced by soshu tradition (easily recognizable)[70]
  • Sa was active from end of kamakura to early nanboku-cho period[70]
  • Sa's school hat great influence in nanboku-cho period[70]
  • Sa produced mainly tanto and few extant tachi[70]

o-Sa's style:[70]

  • sugata: characteristic for end of kamak. p.: thick kasane, slightly large kissaki; tanto are unusually short (24cm)


chikugo
  • mitsuyo
bungo
  • tomoyuki, yukihira
bitchu/ Aoe school
  • quality was highly recognized: 3 of 12 goban kaji came from aoe[54]
  • aoe is place name (presently Kurashiki)
  • mainstream in bitchu province is aoe school[54]
  • aoe is subdevided in: ko-aoe (late heian to mid kamak. ryakunin era 1238/39), chu-aoe (until meitoku era 1390/93), sue-aoe (muromachi p.)[54]
ko-aoe
  • appeared at end of heian period, thrived in kamakura p.[5]
  • two families... (similar style and not much change over time)[54]
    • first: represented by yasutsugu (not the one in list), sadatsugu (both were goban kaji), tametsugu, yasutsugu (the one in list), moritoshi[54]
    • second ("Senoo"): Noritaka (founder) followed by Masatsune (in list) and others[54]
  • sugata: slender tachi with ko-kissaki and deep koshi-zori[54]
  • jihada: distinctive feature (for aoe school) called chirimen-hada and sumigane (dark and plain steel), ...[54]
  • hamon: midare based on suguha with ashi and yo[54]
  • boshi: midare komi or suguha with a short kaeri, yakitsume[56]
Etchu province
  • Go Yoshihiro and Norishige are said to be among Masamunes ten excellent students (juttetsu); they lived at the end of kamakura period in etchu prov.[67]
  • none of Go Yoshihiro's work are signed; but there are extant signed tanto and tachi by norishige[43]

Go Yoshihiro's work:

    • sugata: various sugata with ko-kissaki and narrow mihaba or wider mihaba and larger kissaki
    • jihada: identical to awataguchi; soft jigane, ko-mokume hada mixed with wavy o-hada and with chikei, thick ji-nie becomes yubashiri[43]
    • hamon: ichimai or ichimonji boshi with ashi and abundant nie, kaeri is short or yakitsume[43]

Norishiges work:

    • sugata: features characteristic of the time; not large kissaki, tanto with fukura that are not rounded and uchi-zori, thick kasane, slopes of iori-mune are steep[43]
    • jihada: matsukawa-hada with thick ji-nie, lots of chikei appear vigorously along the o-hada; jigane not equal to go yoshihiro's or masamune's[43]
    • hamon: relatively wide consisting of bright and larger nie based in notare mixed with suguha choji midare or with gunome midare[43]
Hoki province/Yasutsuna school
  • yasutsuna's work predates ko-bizen; he was probably a contemporary of sanjo munechika[57]

Dojigiri Yasutsuna (yasutsuna's greatest work):

    • torii-zori, distinct funbari, ko-kissaki; jihada is mokume-hada with abundant ji-nie and chikei, nie-utsuri is present; hamon is ko-midare consisting of thick nioi and abundant ko-nie; many vivid ashi, yo and kinsuji appear inside the hamon[57]
    • shinogi-zukuri, funbari, strong koshi-zori, iorimune, ko-kissaki; koitame with mani jinie as utsuri in the edge; komidare with many ashi and konie and here and there brightly shining kinsuji; boshi: komaru with strong hakikake; tang: ubu, signed yasutsuna in two characters above mekugiana, "yasu" left of the ridge, "tsuna" central[59]

other school members' (including yasuie) work:

    • coarse mokume-hada; black jigane, ji-nie and chikei; hamon is ko-midare consisting of nie structure with kinsuji and sunagashi[57]

sword mountings (koshirae)

[edit]
  • Swords with decorative mountings (J. kazaritachi) were carried by high-ranking nobles at official court ceremonies and could only be used with special permission from the Emperor. These mountings are characterized by rayskin-covered hilts, Chinese-style sword guards (J. karatsuba), and long metal fittings on the scabbard (J. saya) and hilt (J. tsuka). [6]


  • polished Japanese sword needs a scabbard to preserve and protect it[1]
  • fully mounted scabbard (=koshirae) will have (not sure what century) a lacquered body, a taped hilt, a sword guard, a utility knife or other small implements, decorative metal fittings[1]
  • original purpose was to protect sword from damage; but from early times on they became a status symbol and added dignity to a man's appearance[2]
  • in heian period sharp distinction made between swords designed for actual use in battle and those for ceremonial use[3]


  • tachi was worn hanging by cords from the waist; cords would be attached to two eyelets on the scabbard[4]
  • During the Kamakura Period, and into Muromachi, samurai wore a short sword called a koshigatana (in addition to tachi); Koshigatana were stuck directly into the belt[4]
  • after koshigatana there were other swords worn stuck in the belt such as katana and uchigatana


kazari-tachi
  • tradition of Chinese style tachi was carried on by ceremonial swords of kazari-tachi (decorative sword) type[3]
  • kazari-tachi style (kazari-tachi is the sword):[3]
    • very narrow straight blade from crudely hammered out iron without sharpened edge[3]
    • beautiful fittings were used to enhance the appearance of the blades[3]
    • two fittings known as yamagata kanamono (mountain-shaped metal fitting) were provided to hold the straps (obitori) to attach to the bearer's belt; length of scabbard between them was covered by another fitting: tsutsu kanamono (tube fitting)[3]
    • rayskin covered hilt, scabbard decorated in makie or mother-of-pearl[3]
    • used by nobles for ceremonial court purposes until muromachi period[3]
kenukigata
  • around middle of heian period: kenukigata no tachi became fashionable[5]
  • kenukigata no tachi:
    • hilt pierced in center with a large hair tweezer shape is made in one piece with rest of sword[5]
    • hilt fitted with ornamental border and without separate wooden covering[5]
    • used like kazari-tachi for ceremonial purposes but also in warfare (example in Ise Chokokan)[5]
  • one of few extant heian period mountings is that in niutsuhime shrine (special no-name mounting)[6]
hyogo gusari
  • from close of heian into kamakura period, nagafukurin hyogo gusari was fashionable[6]
  • hyogo gusari = hyogo chains, refers to special woven technique used in making the obitori straps or slings[6]
  • hyogo=arsenal at court (bukiko or hyogo) in which weapons were stored[6]
  • nagafukurin = long ornamental border[6]
  • gorgeous and majestic appearance; decorated around edge of both scabbard and hilt with a long ornamental border[6]
  • used by high-ranking generals when they were wearing armour; designed for use in battle[6]
  • but in kamakura period because of gorgeous appearance, these mounts were made exclusively for dedication at temples and shrines; blades were therefore unusable[6]
  • construction of woven chains became simpler losing its former elegance; and in nanboku-cho period mounts of this type were used in general way for all outsize tachi (but throughout this time chains retain characteristic tapering outline)[6]


aikuchi
  • tachi were accompanied by koshigatana short swords[7]
  • koshigatana had a mounting without guard (tsuba) at the point where the tang enters the hilt->this style known as aikuchi[7]
  • "aikuchi"="fitting mouth" (mouth of scabbard meets hilt directly without intervening guard)

Jargon

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n overall shape of the blade
  2. ^ a b c d e f curvature (sori) of the blade in which the center of the curve lies roughly in the center of the blade resembling the horizontal bar of torii
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i blade width
  4. ^ a b c d e f blade thickness
  5. ^ a b c tapering of the blade from the base to the point
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n fan-shaped blade point
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o visible surface pattern of the steel resulting from hammering and folding during the construction
  8. ^ a b c d e surface grain pattern (jihada) of scattered irregular ovals resembling wood grain
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o border between the tempered part of the cutting edge and the untempered part of the rest of the sword; the temper-line
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j straight temper line (hamon)
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l small distinct crystalline particles due to martensite, austenite, pearlite or troostite that appear like twinkling stars
  12. ^ a b c d e f curvature (sori) of the blade with the center of the curve lying near or inside of the tang (nakago)
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i nie that appears in the ji
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h black gleaming lines of nie that appear in the ji
  15. ^ a b c d e f g h surface grain pattern (jihada) of small ovals and circles resembling the burl-grain in wood
  16. ^ a b c d indistinguishable crystalline particles due to martensite, austenite, pearlite or troostite that appear together like a wash of stars
  17. ^ a b c d e f g h i j an irregular temper line (hamon) pattern resembling cloves, with a round upper part and a narrow constricted lower part
  18. ^ a b patterns and shapes such as lines, streaks, dots and hazy reflections that appear in addition to the grain pattern (jihada) and the temper line (hamon) on the surface of the steel and are a result of sword polishing
  19. ^ a b c d e f generally used to refer to the material of the blade
  20. ^ a b c d straight surface grain pattern (jihada)
  21. ^ a b c d spot or spots where nie is concentrated on the ji
  22. ^ curvature of the blade
  23. ^ a tempered spot within the ji not connected to the main temper line (hamon)
  24. ^ a b temper line (hamon) with tempering marks visible around the ridge and near the edge of the blade
  25. ^ pair of parallel grooves running partway up the blade resembling chopsticks
  26. ^ a b c a short, stubby blade point (kissaki)
  27. ^ a b curvature of the blade with a slight curve toward the cutting edge
  28. ^ surface grain pattern (jihada) resembling the flesh of a sliced pear (jap. nashi)
  29. ^ area between the ridge (shinogi) and the temper line (hamon)
  30. ^ a b c d e a wave-like outline of the temper line (hamon) made up of similarly sized semi-circles.
  31. ^ an irregular temper line (hamon)
  32. ^ a b marks in the temper line (hamon) that resemble the pattern left behind by a broom sweeping over sand
  33. ^ a b c short straight thin radiant black line of higher carbon content that appears in the temper-line (hamon).
  34. ^ a b ridge running along the side of the sword, generally closer to the back than the cutting edge
  35. ^ a b temper line (hamon) of the blade point (kissaki)
  36. ^ temper line (hamon) that forms a small circle as it turns back towards the back side of the blade in the point area (kissaki).
  37. ^ distinctly visible mokume-hada (surface grain pattern of small ovals and circles resembling the burl-grain in wood) with a clearer steel than in similar but coarser patterns
  38. ^ plain dark spots on the ji that differ considerably from the surface pattern in both color and grain
  39. ^ a b c thin line that runs across the temper line (hamon) to the cutting edge (ha)
  40. ^ a b activity (hataraki) in the temper line (hamon) that resembles fallen leaves or tiny footprints
  41. ^ a b irregular temper line (midareba) that continues into the point (kissaki)
  42. ^ a b c part of the temper line (hamon) that extends from the tip of the bōshi to the back ridge (mune)
  43. ^ a b c without turn-back (kaeri); a bōshi that continues directly to the back ridge (mune)
  44. ^ a b an irregular temper line (hamon)
  45. ^ misty reflection on the ji or shinogiji usually made of softer steel
  46. ^ a b multiple overlapping clove shaped chōji midare patterns
  47. ^ a variation of the chōji midare pattern with the peaks resembling tadpoles
  48. ^ a gunome pattern with a straight top and an overall slant
  49. ^ bōshi seen in the works of the three swordsmiths: Osafune Nagamitsu, Kagemitsu and Sanenaga: hamon continues as straight line inside the point (kissaki) area running towards the tip of the blade. Just before reaching the tip, the bōshi turns in a small circle a short distance to the back ridge (mune) remaining inside the point area
  50. ^ misty spots in the temper line (hamon) resulting from repeated grinding or faulty tempering
  51. ^ the cutting edge (ha) of the blade point (kissaki)
  52. ^ ridge of the back edge (mune), the back ridge
  53. ^ surface grain pattern (jihada) resembling the bark of a pine tree
  54. ^ a b a large grain pattern (jihada)
  55. ^ gently waving temper line (hamon)
  56. ^ a fully tempered point area (kissaki) because the temper line (hamon) turns back before reaching the point
  57. ^ a bōshi which turns back in a straight horizontal line with a short kaeri
  58. ^ regular wavy surface grain pattern (jihada)
  59. ^ notch in the cutting edge (ha), dividing the blade proper from the tang (nakago)

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d Kapp, Kapp & Yoshihara 2002, p. 145
  2. ^ a b Satō & Earle 1983, p. 128 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSatōEarle1983 (help)
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Satō & Earle 1983, p. 131 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSatōEarle1983 (help)
  4. ^ a b c d Kubo, Tomoyasu; Rinne, Melissa M. "Sword Mountings". Metalwork Stories. Kyoto National Museum. Retrieved 2010-08-03.
  5. ^ a b c d e Satō & Earle 1983, p. 132 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSatōEarle1983 (help)
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Cite error: The named reference sato-p134 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  7. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference sato-p53 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  8. ^ Noma 2003, pp. 13–14
  9. ^ Kleiner 2008, p. 208
  10. ^ a b Shiveley, McCullough & Hall 1993, pp. 80–107
  11. ^ a b Murphy, Declan. "Yayoi Culture". Yamasa Institute. Retrieved 2010-03-19.
  12. ^ a b c Nagayama 1998, p. 2
  13. ^ Keally, Charles T. (2006-06-03). "Yayoi Culture". Japanese Archaeology. Charles T. Keally. Retrieved 2010-03-19.
  14. ^ a b c Yumoto 1979, p. 27
  15. ^ a b Satō & Earle 1983, p. 28 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSatōEarle1983 (help)
  16. ^ a b c d e f Nagayama 1998, p. 12
  17. ^ Nagayama 1998, p. 13
  18. ^ Gibbon 2005, p. 335
  19. ^ Enders & Gutschow 1998, p. 13
  20. ^ a b c d e f g h Yumoto 1979, p. 28
  21. ^ a b c d Satō & Earle 1983, p. 46 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSatōEarle1983 (help)
  22. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Yumoto 1979, p. 29
  23. ^ a b c d e Nagayama 1998, p. 15
  24. ^ a b c d e f Nagayama 1998, p. 16
  25. ^ a b Satō & Earle 1983, p. 47 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSatōEarle1983 (help)
  26. ^ a b c d e f g h Nagayama 1998, p. 17
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  32. ^ a b c d e f g h i Nagayama 1998, p. 21
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  35. ^ a b c d e Nagayama 1998, p. 26"
  36. ^ a b c d e Nagayama 1998, p. 25
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  49. ^ a b c d e Satō 1983, p. 25 Cite error: The named reference "sato-p25" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  50. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Yumoto 1979, p. 25
  51. ^ a b Satō & Earle 1983, p. 26 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSatōEarle1983 (help)
  52. ^ a b c d e Nagayama 1998, p. 118
  53. ^ Nagayama 1998, p. 159
  54. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Nagayama 1998, p. 141
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  59. ^ a b Satō & Earle 1983, p. 90 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSatōEarle1983 (help)
  60. ^ a b Frenzel, Arnold; Leung, Chris. "Chicago Meibutsu 1996". Albuquerque: The Japanese Sword Society of the United States. Retrieved 2010-07-31.
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  63. ^ a b c d Satō 1983, p. 198
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  66. ^ a b c d e f Junji, Honma. "Nihon Koto Shi (History of Koto)". Token Bijutsu (572). Tokyo: The Society for Preservation of Japanese Art Swords. Retrieved 2010-03-04.
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  71. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Nagayama 1998, p. 31
  72. ^ a b c d e f Satō & Earle 1983, p. 89 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSatōEarle1983 (help)
  73. ^ Satō & Earle 1983, p. 88 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFSatōEarle1983 (help)
  74. ^ Nagayama 1998, p. 3
  75. ^ Nagayama p59ff
  76. ^ Nagayama p71ff
  77. ^ a b c d e Nagayama 1998, p. 48
  78. ^ a b Nagayama 1998, p. 49
  79. ^ a b Yumoto 1979, p. 32
  1. ^ "Hyōgo" was the name for the weapon arsenal at court and "gusari" meaning chains, refers to the straps which were made in a special woven technique, with which the sword was hung from the belt.
  2. ^ Other swords from that period have been designated as National Treasures as part of excavated sets of items in the category archaeological materials.
  3. ^ According to the Showa Mei Zukushi (1312-1317), one of the oldest extant lists of swordsmiths, the goban kaji were Norimune, Nobufusa, Muneyoshi, Sukemune, Yukikuni, Sukenari, Sukenobu or Sukechika from Bizen province; Sadatsugu, Tsunetsugu, Tsuguie from Bitchū province and Kuniyasu, Kunitomo from Yamashiro province.
  4. ^ Many of these were shortened into katana during the Momoyama period.
  5. ^ There were likely many other founders whose works do not exist anymore.
  6. ^ oldest of five Yamato schools, named after Senjuin temple
  7. ^ named after Taima-dera
  8. ^ named after Tengai-mon, a gate of Tōdai-ji
  9. ^ named after a family name, located at Takaichi
  10. ^ This Yasutsugu is not the one in the list of swords.
  11. ^ Sometimes Masatsune is also credited with the founding.
  12. ^ With some exceptions such as the Ōkanehira by Kanehira

Bibliography

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