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Sexual behaviour

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Sexual feelings and behaviours change during the menstrual cycle. Before and during ovulation, high levels of estrogen and androgens result in women having an increased interest in sexual activity.[1] Unlike other animal species, woman show interest in sex across all days of the menstrual cycle, regardless of fertility.[2] When woman are most fertile, they tend to avoid situations that may result in sexual coercion.[3]

Mate choice

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Behaviour towards potential mating partners changes during different phases of the menstrual cycle.[4][5][6] Near ovulation women are found to have increased physical attraction and interest in attending social gatherings with men.[3] The intensity of mate guarding differs across the phases of the cycle, with increased mate guarding occurring when woman are fertile.[6] [7][8]

During the fertile phase, women experience more attraction, fantasies and sexual interest for extra pair men but not for the primary partner.[3][6][9] They also engage in extra-pair flirtations and demonstrate a preference for extra pair copulation.[3][9]

Voice

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Preferences for voice pitch change across the cycle.[9] When seeking a short term mating partner, women prefer a male with a low voice pitch, particularly during the fertile phase.[9] During the late follicular phase, women demonstrate a preference for mates with a masculine, deep voice.[10] Research has also been conducted on the attractiveness of the female voice throughout the cycle.[11] During their most fertile phase of the menstrual cycle, female’s voices are rated as significantly more attractive.[11] This effect is not found with women on the birth control pill. [11]

Smell

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Women’s preference for male’s body odour changes across the menstrual cycle.[12] Males who score highly on dominance are rated as sexier by females, during the fertile phase of the menstrual cycle. Additionally, during their most fertile phase of the menstrual cycle women show preference for the odour of symmetrical men.[6] This effect is not found for women on the birth control pill.[13] Also, during the late follicular and ovulatory phases, women prefer the scent of masculine men.[9] The scent of androsterone (responsible for testosterone levels) is highly preferred by women during the peak of their fertility in the menstrual cycle.[9] Moreover, women demonstrate preference for men with a scent that indicates developmental stability.[9]

In regards to women's smell across the cycle, men have been found to use olfactory cues in order to know if a woman is ovulating.[12] Using a rating of women’s odours, women who are ovulating are rated as more attractive by men.[12] Men demonstrate preferences for the scent of fertile women.[12]

Face

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Preferences for facial features in mates also change across the cycle.[9] There has been no difference found in preference for long-term mating partners during the menstrual cycle, however those seeking a short-term relationship were more likely to choose a partner with more masculine features than usual.[3][10] This was found to be the case especially during the woman’s high conception risk stage and when salivary testosterone was high.[14] However, when women are in the luteal (non-fertile) phase, they prefer men (and females) with more feminine faces.[10] A preference is also shown for self-resembling faces and apparent health in faces during the luteal phase of the cycle.[15] Apparent health preferences were found to be strongest when progesterone levels were high.[15] Additionally, during the fertile phase, women show a preference for men with darker skin pigmentation.[9] Research on facial symmetry is mixed.[16]

Body

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Preferences for body features change during the fertile phase of the cycle, women seeking a short-term partner demonstrate a preference for taller and muscular males.[9] Women also show preferences of males with masculine bodies at peak fertility.[9][14] Mixed research has been found regarding body symmetry preferences throughout different phases of the cycle.[9]

Personality

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In short term mates, during the fertile phase, woman show more attraction to dominant men who displayed social presence.[9] For long term mates, shifts in desired trait preferences do not occur throughout the cycle.[9]

References

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  1. ^ Levay, Simon; Baldwin, Janice; Baldwin, John (2015). "Women's Bodies". Discovering Human Sexuality. Massachusetts: Sinauer Associtates, Inc. p. 44. ISBN 9781605352756.
  2. ^ Thornhill, Randy; Gangestad, Steven W (2008). "Background and Overview of the Book". The Evolutionary Biology of Human Female Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 12. ISBN 9780195340990.
  3. ^ a b c d e Thornhill, Randy; Gangestad, Steven W (2008). "Women's Estrus, Pair Bonding and Extra-Pair Sex". The Evolutionary Biology of Human Female Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 246–256. ISBN 9780195340990.
  4. ^ Gildersleeve, Kelly; Haselton, Martie G.; Fales, Melissa R. "Meta-analyses and p-curves support robust cycle shifts in women's mate preferences: Reply to Wood and Carden (2014) and Harris, Pashler, and Mickes (2014)". Psychological Bulletin. 140 (5): 1272–1280. doi:10.1037/a0037714.
  5. ^ Gildersleeve, Kelly; DeBruine, Lisa; Haselton, Martie G.; Frederick, David A.; Penton-Voak, Ian S.; Jones, Benedict C.; Perrett, David I. (2013-04-11). "Shifts in Women's Mate Preferences Across the Ovulatory Cycle: A Critique of Harris (2011) and Harris (2012)". Sex Roles. 69 (9–10): 516–524. doi:10.1007/s11199-013-0273-4. ISSN 0360-0025.
  6. ^ a b c d Levay, Simon; Valente, Sharon M (2006). "Sexual Attraction and Arousal". Human Sexuality. Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates Inc. pp. 217–253. ISBN 0878934650.
  7. ^ Thornhill, Randy; Gangestad, Steven W (2008). "Coevolutionary Processes". The Evolutionary Biology of Human Female Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 290–321. ISBN 9780195340990.
  8. ^ Levay, Simon; Baldwin, Janice; Baldwin, John (2015). "Sex and Evolution". Discovering Human Sexuality. Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates, Inc. p. 565. ISBN 9781605352756.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Thornhill, Randy; Gangestad, Steven W (2008). "Women's Estrus". The Evolutionary Biology of Human Female Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 207–234. ISBN 9780195340990.
  10. ^ a b c Levay, Simon; Baldwin, Janice; Baldwin, John (2015). "Attraction, Arousal, and Response". Discovering Human Sexuality. Sunderland, Massachusetts U.S.A: Sinauer Associates, Inc. p. 135. ISBN 9781605352756.
  11. ^ a b c Pipitone, R. Nathan; Gallup, Gordon G. (2008-07-01). "Women's voice attractiveness varies across the menstrual cycle". Evolution and Human Behavior. 29 (4): 268–274. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2008.02.001. ISSN 1090-5138.
  12. ^ a b c d Thornhill, Randy; Gangestad, Steven W (2008). "Concealed Fertility". The Evolutionary Biology of Human Female Sexuality. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 266–290. ISBN 9780195340990.
  13. ^ Gangestad, Steven W.; Thornhill, Randy (1998-05-22). "Menstrual cycle variation in women's preferences for the scent of symmetrical men". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 265 (1399): 927–933. doi:10.1098/rspb.1998.0380. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 1689051. PMID 9633114.
  14. ^ a b DeBruine, Lisa; Jones, Benedict C.; Frederick, David A.; Haselton, Martie G.; Penton-Voak, Ian S.; Perrett, David I. (2010-01-01). "Evidence for menstrual cycle shifts in women's preferences for masculinity: a response to Harris (in press) "Menstrual cycle and facial preferences reconsidered"". Evolutionary Psychology: An International Journal of Evolutionary Approaches to Psychology and Behavior. 8 (4): 768–775. ISSN 1474-7049. PMID 22947833.
  15. ^ a b Jones, Benedict C.; DeBruine, Lisa M.; Perrett, David I.; Little, Anthony C.; Feinberg, David R.; Smith, Miriam J. Law (2008-01-12). "Effects of Menstrual Cycle Phase on Face Preferences". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 37 (1): 78–84. doi:10.1007/s10508-007-9268-y. ISSN 0004-0002.
  16. ^ Gildersleeve, Kelly; Haselton, Martie G.; Fales, Melissa R. "Do women's mate preferences change across the ovulatory cycle? A meta-analytic review". Psychological Bulletin. 140 (5): 1205–1259. doi:10.1037/a0035438.
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