User:AnnaCat2/sandbox
Extrinsic factors
[edit](1) Characteristics of materials used: If the material is all closely related, it will be more easily reproduced than if it is unrelated. This relationship of the material is called the "coefficient of associability."[9]
(2) Rhythm of presentation: Closely related to the problem of presenting the stimuli in groups, is the presentation of the stimuli in rhythmic fashion. Most investigators point out that the stimuli used in testing memory span should be presented with as little rhythm as possible. The effect of rhythm is to group the units in the series, again enabling the individual to secure a span higher than his "true" one. [citation needed]
3) Rate of presentation: The speed with which the stimuli are presented has an effect on memory span score. When listening to auditory stimuli, the impact of speed is mediated by whether the subject is actively or passively listening. Active listeners score better with faster stimuli presentation. Passive listeners score better as time increases.[10]
(4) Modality of presentation: Studies have shown a consistent increase in memory span for lists presented auditorally over ones presented visually.[11]
(5) Time required to vocalize responses: Memory span is approximately equal to the number of items which a subject can articulate in two seconds.[1] With that in mind, memory span is consistently higher for short words than for long words.[12]
(6) Method of scoring responses: The method of scoring the responses also has an effect upon the apparent memory span of the individual. Variations in scoring are common and should be considered when looking at data.
(7) Distraction: Interference negatively effects performance on memory span tasks. Since distraction is harder to ignore at a young age, it is possible that interference may have a role in the differences of the scores based on age.[2]
Intrinsic factors
[edit]- Age
Age affects working memory span more than it does short-term memory span.[3] Memory span has been found to increase with age until around ages sixteen to twenty-six, though it may become constant while a person is between the ages of twelve and sixteen.[4] However, if the mental age of a person does not increase, their memory span will not either.[citation needed] Decline in forward and backward memory span can occur between 20 and 70 years-of age, but declines at a faster rate after age 70.[15][16] Within the range of adulthood alone, older adults only have simple or working memory spans equivalent to 75-90% of what young adults retain.[3]
Practice of Music
Musical training improves the verbal memory span, but does not improve visual memory span. The more training received the better the memory improvement.[5][6] Preschoolers given short-term musical training showed improvement in their executive function and verbal memory span.[7] Sixty to eighty-five year-olds who received piano lessons showed a decrease of age-based memory decline, as well as improved executive function and working memory.[8] Musicians also perform significantly better on the rhythm span test (the results of which correlate significantly with results of the digit span test).[9][10]
- Permanent pathological conditions
When the physical condition of a person becomes permanently modified, the memory span has been found to be lower than that for a healthy individual. With other words, permanent medical conditions can lead to a deterioration of memory. [citation needed]
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- ^ Ellis, N. C.; Hennelly, R. A. (February 1980). "A bilingual word-length effect: Implications for intelligence testing and the relative ease of mental calculation in Welsh and English".British Journal of Psychology. 71 (1): 43–51. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8295.1980.tb02728.x.
- ^ Lustig, C., May, C. P., & Hasher, L. (2001). Working memory span and the role of proactive interference. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 130(2). 199-207.
- ^ a b Bopp, K. L. & Verhaeghen, K.(2005). Aging and verbal memory span: A meta-analysis. Journal of Gerontology: PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCES, 60B(5).
- ^ Gregoire, J., and Van der Linden, M.(1997). "Effect of age on forward and backward digit spans". Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition. 4(2), 140-149.
- ^ Ho, Y. C., Cheung, M.C., & Chan, A.S. (2003). Music training improves verbal but not visual memory: Cross-sectional and longitudinal explorations in children. Neuropsychology, 17(3). 439-450.
- ^ Chan, A. S., Ho, Y., & Cheung, M. (1998). Music training improves verbal memory. Nature, 396, 128.
- ^ Moreno, S., Bialystok, E., Barac, R., Schellenberg, E.G., Cepeda, N.J., & Chau, T. (2011). Short-term music training enhances verbal intelligence and executive function. Psychological Science, 22, 1425-1433. doi:10.1177/0956797611416999
- ^ Bugos, J. A.; Perlstein, W. M.; McCrae, C. S.; Brophy, T. S.; Bedenbaugh, P. H. (2007-07-01). "Individualized Piano Instruction enhances executive functioning and working memory in older adults". Aging & Mental Health. 11 (4): 464–471. doi:10.1080/13607860601086504. ISSN 1360-7863. PMID 17612811.
- ^ Schaal, Nora K.; Banissy, Michael J.; Lange, Kathrin (2015-01-02). "The Rhythm Span Task: Comparing Memory Capacity for Musical Rhythms in Musicians and Non-Musicians". Journal of New Music Research. 44 (1): 3–10. doi:10.1080/09298215.2014.937724. ISSN 0929-8215.
- ^ Saito, Satoru (2001-07-01). "The phonological loop and memory for rhythms: An individual differences approach". Memory. 9 (4–6): 313–322. doi:10.1080/09658210143000164. ISSN 0965-8211. PMID 11594354.