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[Feedback from Dr Austen - Some excellent additions here on what is a very complex topic! I like how you have carried on the clear organizational framework for the individual client kingdoms and made expansions in this area. Your peer reviewer makes some important grammar/syntax notes that you can tidy up in your next round of drafting. One thing I would add/look at - your new section on invasions and establishment of client kingdoms = I would add in some hyperlinks here to the main Wikipedia articles on these topics for further contextualization. I also wonder if there is anything more to be said about how these relationships changed over time or differed from one location to the next?]

Peer Review buddy: The sections I added or maybe just redefined I bolded the headings. If I added a section entirely, its all bolded and then any info added to existing sections is bolded within them! If you have any suggestions for anything else you would expect to see in the article definitely let me know! I am starting to get stumped with the vastness of my topic! Happy reading! :)

Lead section

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Map of Roman Britain in 150 CE

The Roman client kingdoms in Britain were native tribes which chose to align themselves with the Roman Empire because they saw it as the best option for self-preservation or for protection from other hostile tribes. Alternatively, the Romans created (or enlisted) some client kingdoms when they felt influence without direct rule was desirable. Client kingdoms were ruled by client kings. In Latin these kings were referred to as ex sociusque et amicus, which translates to "king and ally and friend."[1] The type of relationships between client kingdoms and Rome was reliant on the individual circumstances in each kingdom.[1]

The beginnings of the system are to be found in Caesar's re-enthroning of Mandubracius as king of the Trinovantes, who had been dethroned by Cassivellaunus and then aided Caesar's second invasion of Britain in 54 BCE.[2] The system further developed in the following hundred years, particularly under Augustus's influence, so that by the time of the Roman invasion in 43 CE several Roman client kingdoms had become established in the south of Britain.[3] Client kingdoms were annexed when Rome needed to reaffirm their power in Britain or when the client kings could not manage the kingdoms and surrounding areas any more.[4]

These were also partially due to the expansion of the Catuvellauni under Cunobelinus in the southeast, and partly as a result of the invasion itself, and included Cogidubnus of the Regnenses, Prasutagus of the Iceni and Cartimandua of the Brigantes and, Boudica of the Dobunni.[5] The antecedents of the Regnenses, the Atrebates, had been a client kingdom of Rome since Caesar's first invasion in 55 BC.[6] In the north of Britain, ongoing border struggles across the defensive walls led to the establishment of buffer states, including the Votadini in Northumberland.[6]

*I deleted sentence about kings getting roman names: not discussed further in the article*

Invasions of Britain and Establishment of Client Kingdoms

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Julius Caesar invaded Britain in 55 BCE. and 54 BCE. His initial invasion was unsuccessful, and the Celtic tribes of Britain fought with more strength than expected.[7] In 54 BCE the invasion was considered a success but in Caesar's eyes the island yielded little reward and he left without leaving a garrison to watch over his latest conquest.[8]

Client Kingdoms were initially established as auxiliary support for the Roman army under Claudius in the expanding empire, but were reimagined as the way for Rome to achieve the power status of a unified empire.[4] Each kingdom had their own systems in place to operate within the Roman model, most notably in relation to trading and defence; and they created a national identity aligned with Roman values.[4]

There is evidence of rebellion against the empire among client kingdoms like the Catuvellauni and the Iceni tribes.[6] The relationships between the different client kingdoms and Celtic tribes of the area were always changing as loyalties shifted between the indigenous populations and Roman invaders. The changing political relations with the Roman empire and their conquest of Britain led to conflicts between tribes like the Atrebates and the Catuvellauni in 40 CE.[6] There was also recorded conflicts between the Brigantes tribe and the Catuvellauni in 50 CE.[9]

Client Kingdoms

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Map of the territory of Client Kingdoms in the South of Roman Britain

Client kingdoms of Southern Britain

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Trinovantes and Catuvellauni

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Main articles: Trinovantes and Catuvellauni

Client status: 54 BC-c.39 CE

Location: lands in south-East England

In 54 BCE, Julius Caesar set up Mandubracius of the Trinovantes as a client King and established the Catuvellauni as a tributary state of Rome.[6] The centralization of the client kingdoms in southern Britain led to some resemblance of one British society ruled by the Catuvellauni.[6] Coin evidence suggests that since 10 CE, both areas were ruled by Cunobelinus until around 39-40 CE when after his death anti-Roman factions led by his Caratacus had the most power.[10][6] In 40 CE Caratacus overthrew Verica of the Atrebates client kingdom, who was a known ally to the emperor, Claudius.[6] Caratacus led anti-Roman forces against the Roman invasion in 43 CE.[6] The next that was recorded of them was in 50 CE when Caratacus led forces against governor Publius Ostorius Scapula with tribes from Wales.[11] This lead to his defeat in 50 CE and search of refuge with the Brigantes, and ultimately a betrayal by Cartimandua in 51 CE.[9] Following Caratacus' defeat, the lands belonging to the Catuvellauni were annexed, the settlement of Verulamium was given municipum status in 50 CE, and its settlers were given a level of citizenship with certain rights.[12]

*deleted last sentence about caligula's invasion because I could not find sources that directly link the two*

Atrebates, later Regnenses or Regni

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Main articles: Atrebates and Regnenses

Client status: 55 BC-70s CE

Location: Roughly modern-day Hampshire and West Sussex (capitals now Silchester and Chichester)

The Belgic Atrebates were led by a semi independent client king, Commius, in Gaul when Caesar left Britiain after his first invasion. When Commius began to conspire against Rome, he was forced to flee to Britain in 54 BCE. He named himself king of his people and ruled until approximately 20 BCE.[13] Commius was succeeded by three of his sons. First, Tincomarus, from 25/20 BC to 7/8 CE. He was more sympathetic to Rome than his father had been, and based on numismatic evidence styled himself rex, implying client kingship status under the Empire. He was expelled in 7/8 CE, seeking refuge with the Romans.[13]

After Tincomarus, Augustus chose to recognize his brother, Eppillus, as the next client king.[6] After ruling jointly with Tincomarus, he apparently became sole ruler c.7 CE, and may have been the one who drove out Tincomarus.[6]

Eppillus was succeeded by another of Commius' sons, Verica, who reigned from Silchester.[6] During his rule, the Atrebates were under pressure from the Catuvellauni to the east.[6] Around 10 CE, Verica was dethroned by the brother of Cunobelinus, Epaticcus. Verica did not regain control until 37 CE.[6] Caratacus, of the Catuvellauni, conquered the kingdom and Verica was driven out of Britain in roughly 40 CE.[6] As a Roman ally, it has been argued that when Verica sought refuge in Rome, he helped convince Claudius to invade Britain.[6]

Following the Roman conquest, the Atrebates tribe fell under the rule of Cogidubnus, who was at some point given the Roman names Tiberius Claudius.[6] Cogidubnus ruled the lands of the Atrebates and the Regni, taking the latter as the new name for all people who lived in the regions. [13]

**Rewrote the portions of the Atrebates section because it focused more on the rule of commius in Gual, not Britain. Additionally, rewrote portions to comply with the citations found for the article and to be more concise in the explanation of Verica's expulsin and the transition from Atrebate to Regni tribe**

Iceni

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Main Articles: Iceni

Client status: c.47-60 CE

Location: Roughly modern-day Norfolk

The Iceni tribe were located in the south east region of Britain. The Iceni had a coin system in place before the Roman invasion, and these coins show evidence that a king named Antedios was in power through the Roman Invasion by Claudius in 43 CE.[6] When the kingdom rebelled in 47 CE after an attempt to disarmour the Iceni, it is suggested he was removed from power by Rome and that Prasutagus was installed as king.[6]

Upon Parsutagus' death in 60 CE, he wanted to give half of the power to his daughters and the other half to the emperor.[6] This went against Roman law which dictated the land of the Iceni would be annexed to the emperor, Nero.[6] The Romans seized control and committed assault against Prasutagus' wife Boudica, and her daughters.[6] These actions of the Romans ignited a long lasting revolt throughout multiple British client kingdoms, including the Iceni and Trinovantes kingdoms.[6] This revolt led to the destruction of the municipums of Colchester, Londinium and Verulamium, which were all promptly rebuilt following the suppression of this revolt.[6] The story of Boudica ends with mystery as there are conflicting stories of her death.[6] The territory once ruled by Boudica and Prasutagus was considered part of the Roman province after Boudica's defeat.[14]

**Added sections give context to the Iceni tribe prior to the Roman conquest and rebellions prior to the Boudican rebellion. Rewriting of the conflict surrounding Prasutagus' death in order to reflect the citations found for the article**

Map of the Territory of the Brigantes

Client Kingdoms of Northern Britain

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Brigantes

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Main Articles: Brigantes

Client status: c. 46 CE-

Location: Pennines of South Yorkshire to north of the Tyne.

The Brigantes were given client status but were not considered a conquered Celtic tribe, despite accepting the Romans as the governing power.[9] Notable rulers include Client king Venutius and Queen Cartamandua,[9] who joined the ranks of power female leaders, a concept foreign to the Roman invaders. Cartimandua is known for her betrayal of Caratacus after his rebellion in 51 CE, by handing him over to the Roman army.[9] This action caused unrest in the Brigantia areas of Britain, where the people were split between supporting Cartimandua and the Romans by extension, or supporting her husband Venutius and the British rebellion.[9]

Venutius went on to take control of the Brigantes tribe and lead his own rebellion against the Romans and his wife Cartimandua, his supporters eventually forcing Cartimandua out of her land in response to her betrayal of rebel Caratacus.[9] This rebellion was defeated at an unknown date.

Over the next century, relationships with the Brigantes tribe shifted and changed. Tensions and war broke out during the conquest of Gnaeus Julius Agricola, who was the governor of Roman Britain from 78 CE- 85 CE.[7] Turmoil with the Brigantes tribe continued into the second century as the construction of Hadrian's Wall and Antonine Wall.[15]

**Added a section to provide more context to the tribes of northern Britain and the tumultuous relationships they had with the kingdoms of the south.**

Votadini

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Main Article: Votadini

Client status: c.140-c.410 CE

Location: Southeast Scotland and northeast England, including modern-day Northumberland

The Votadini were a Brythonic people who lived under the direct rule of Rome between Hadrian's Wall and the Antonine Wall from 138-162 CE.[16][17] When the Romans withdrew behind Hadrian's Wall in 164 CE, they left the Votadini as a client kingdom, a buffer zone against the Picts in the north.[17] They maintained client status until the Romans pulled out of Britain in 410 CE.[17] Through a series of linguistic changes, the Votadini became known as the Gododdin, and maintained a kingdom until their defeat by the Angles c.600 CE.[17]

References

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  1. ^ a b Braund, David C. (2015-12-22). "client kings". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.1677. Retrieved 2021-02-28.
  2. ^ "The Internet Classics Archive | The Gallic Wars by Julius Caesar". classics.mit.edu. Retrieved 2021-04-03.
  3. ^ "Roman Britain". www.cs.mcgill.ca. Retrieved 2021-03-01.
  4. ^ a b c Everatt, J. D. (1972). "A study of the client kings in the early Roman period". Masters Thesis, Durham University.
  5. ^ "Cassius Dio — Book 60". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2021-04-03.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y Christopher A. Snyder (2003). The Britons. Internet Archive. Blackwell Pub. ISBN 978-0-631-22260-6.
  7. ^ a b "Tacitus, Publius Cornelius (c.56–c.120) - The Agricola". www.poetryintranslation.com. Retrieved 2021-03-01.
  8. ^ "Britain and the Romans", From Roman Britain to Norman England (0 ed.), Routledge, pp. 68–87, 2002-09-11, doi:10.4324/9780203450468-13, ISBN 978-0-203-45046-8, retrieved 2021-03-01
  9. ^ a b c d e f g "North East England : The Roman Conquest AD43-AD71". England's North East. Retrieved 2021-03-01.
  10. ^ Creighton, John (2000-07-06). Coins and Power in Late Iron Age Britain. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511489587. ISBN 978-0-521-77207-5.
  11. ^ Tacitus], Tacitus [Cornelius (2008-06-12), Yardley, John C; Barrett, Anthony (eds.), "60", Oxford World's Classics: Tacitus: The Annals, Oxford University Press, p. 38, doi:10.1093/oseo/instance.00127799, ISBN 978-0-19-282421-9, retrieved 2021-04-05
  12. ^ Wacher, John (2020-08-18). Wacher, John (ed.). The Towns of Roman Britain. doi:10.4324/9781003062462. ISBN 9781003062462.
  13. ^ a b c Webster, Graham (1999). The Roman invasion of Britain. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-203-25135-0. OCLC 52731136.
  14. ^ "Cassius Dio — Epitome of Book 62". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2021-04-05.
  15. ^ "Pausanias, Description of Greece, Arcadia, chapter 43, section 1". www.perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved 2021-03-21.
  16. ^ Martin., Gilbert (2012), The Routledge Atlas of British History., Taylor and Francis, ISBN 978-1-135-10873-1, OCLC 811505614, retrieved 2021-04-06
  17. ^ a b c d "Kingdoms of British Celts - Votadini / Guotodin". www.historyfiles.co.uk. Retrieved 2021-04-06.
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