User:Allisonk444/Spore
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[edit]Lead
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In biology, a spore is a unit of sexual (in fungi) or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions.[1] Spores form part of the life cycles of many plants, algae, fungi and protozoa.[2] They were thought to have appeared as early as the mid-late Ordovician period as an adaptation of early land plants.[3]
Article body
[edit]Classification of Spores
[edit]Spores can be classified in several ways such as by their spore producing structure, function, origin during life cycle, and mobility.
Below is a table listing the mode of classification, name, identifying characteristic, examples, and images of different spore species.
Mode of Classification | Name | Identifiying Characteristic | Example Spore Containing Organism | Image | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Spore Producing Structure | Sporangiospore | Produced by sporangium | Zygomycetes | ||
Zygospores | Produced by zygosporangium | Zygomycetes | |||
Ascospores | Produced by ascus | Ascomycetes | |||
Basidiospores | Produced by basidium | Basidiomycetes | |||
Aecispores | Produced by aecium | Rusts and Smuts | |||
Urediniospores | Produced by uredinium | Rusts and Smuts | |||
Teliospores | Produced by teilum | Rusts and Smuts | |||
Oospores | Produced by oogonium | Oomycetes | |||
Carpospores | Produced by carposophorophyte | Red Algae | |||
Tetraspores | Produced by tetrasphorophyte | Red Algae | |||
Function | Chalmydospore | Thick-walled resting spores of fungi produced to survive in unfavorable conditions | Asomycota | ||
Parasitic Fungal Spore | Internal Spores | Germinate within a host | |||
External (Environmental) spores | Spores released by the host to infest other hosts [4] | ||||
Origin During Life Cycle | Meiospores | Microspores | Produced sexually through meiosis, and give rise to a male gametophyte | Pollen in seed plants | |
Megaspores (macrospores) | Produced sexually through meiosis, and give rise to a female gametophyte | Ovule in seed plants | |||
Mitospores | Produced asexually though mitosis | Ascomycetes | |||
Mobility | Zoospores | Mobile through flagella | Some algae and fungi | ||
Aplanospores | Immobile, however still produce flagella | ||||
Autospores | Immobile spores that do not produce flagella | ||||
Ballistospores | Forcibly discharged from the fungal fruiting body due to internal force (such as built up pressure) | Basidiospores and/or part of the genus Pilobus | |||
Stratismospores | Forcibly discharged from the fungal fruting body due to external force (such as raindrops or passing animals) | Puffballs |
External Anatomy
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Under high magnification, spores often have complex patterns or ornamentation on their exterior surfaces. A specialized terminology has been developed to describe features of such patterns. Some markings represent apertures, places where the tough outer coat of the spore can be penetrated when germination occurs. Spores can be categorized based on the position and number of these markings and apertures. Alete spores show no lines. In monolete spores, there is a single narrow line (laesura) on the spore.[5] Indicating the prior contact of two spores that eventually separated.[3] In trilete spores, each spore shows three narrow lines radiating from a center pole.[5] This shows that four spores shared a common origin and were initially in contact with each other forming a tetrahedron. [3] A wider aperture in the shape of a groove may be termed a colpus.[5] The number of colpi distinguishes major groups of plants. Eudicots have tricolpate spores (i.e. spores with three colpi).[6]
Origin
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Spores have been found in microfossils dating back to the mid-late Ordovician period.[3] Two hypothesized initial functions of spores relate to whether they appeared before or after land plants. The heavily studied hypothesis is that spores were an adaptation of early land plant species, such as embryophytes, that allowed for plants to easily disperse while adapting to their non-aquatic environment.[3] [7]This is particularly supported by the observation of a thick spore wall in cryptospores. These spore walls would have protected potential offspring from novel weather elements.[3] The second more recent hypothesis is that spores were an early predecessor of land plants and formed during errors in the meiosis of algae, a hypothesized early ancestor of land plants. [8]
Whether spores arose before or after land plants, their contributions to topics in fields like paleontology and plant phylogenetics have been useful .[8] The spores found in microfossils, also known as cryptospores, are well preserved due to the fixed material they are in as well as how abundant and widespread they were during their respective time periods. These microfossils are especially helpful when studying the early periods of earth as macrofossils such as plants are not common nor well preserved.[3] Both cryptospores and modern spores have diverse morphology that indicate possible environmental conditions of earlier periods of Earth and evolutionary relationships of plant species.[3][8][7]
References
[edit]- ^ Setlow, Peter; Johnson, Eric A. (2014-04-30), Doyle, Michael P.; Buchanan, Robert L. (eds.), "Spores and Their Significance", Food Microbiology, Washington, DC, USA: ASM Press, pp. 45–79, doi:10.1128/9781555818463.ch3, ISBN 978-1-68367-058-2, retrieved 2023-12-13
- ^ "Tree of Life Web Project". Archived from the original on 5 February 2018. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Wellman, C. H.; Gray, J. (2000-06-29). "The microfossil record of early land plants". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 355 (1398): 717–731, discussion 731–732. doi:10.1098/rstb.2000.0612. ISSN 0962-8436. PMC 1692785. PMID 10905606.
- ^ "Biology of Microsporidia". web.archive.org. 2008-06-26. Retrieved 2024-03-24.
- ^ a b c Punt, W.; Hoen, P. P.; Blackmore, S.; Nilsson, S. & Le Thomas, A. (2007). "Glossary of pollen and spore terminology". Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology. 143 (1): 1–81. Bibcode:2007RPaPa.143....1P. doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2006.06.008.
- ^ Judd, Walter S. & Olmstead, Richard G. (2004). "A survey of tricolpate (eudicot) phylogenetic relationships". American Journal of Botany. 91 (10): 1627–44. doi:10.3732/ajb.91.10.1627. PMID 21652313.
- ^ a b Norem, W. L. (1958). "Keys for the Classification of Fossil Spores and Pollen". Journal of Paleontology. 32 (4): 666–676. ISSN 0022-3360.
- ^ a b c Strother, Paul K.; Foster, Clinton (2021-08-13). "A fossil record of land plant origins from charophyte algae". Science. 373 (6556): 792–796. doi:10.1126/science.abj2927. ISSN 0036-8075.