User:Akohutnicki/sandbox
This is Adam Kohutnicki's sandbox (OH GAHD)
This is new and interesting - this is for my Introduction to Neuroscience class.
Learning how to bold ^ and how to italicize.
- In order to bullet, go to advanced and then select bullet option.
- Perhaps to sub bullet?...
- Numbering items, same thing: go to advanced.
- And Sub-number?.... perhaps
THIS IS MY ACTUAL PORTION FOR THE INFERIOR TEMPORAL GYRUS PAGE THAT I AM WORKING ON:
The Inferior Temporal Gyrus
[edit]The inferior temporal cortex is the anterior region of the temporal lobe located underneath the central temporal sulcus. The primary function of the inferior temporal cortex - otherwise referenced as IT cortex - is associated with visual stimuli processing, namely visual object recognition, and has been suggested by recent experimental results as the final location of the ventral cortical visual system.[1] The IT cortex in humans is also known as the Inferior Temporal Gyrus since it has been located to a specific region of the human temporal lobe.[2] The IT processes visual stimuli of objects in our field of vision, and is involved with memory and memory recall to identify that object; it is involved with the processing and perception created by visual stimuli amplified in the V1, V2, V3, and V4 regions of the occipital lobe. This region processes the color and form of the object in the visual field and is responsible for producing the “what” from this visual stimuli, or in other words identifying the object based on the color and form of the object and comparing that processed information to stored memories of objects to identify that object.[3]
The IT cortex’s neurological significance is not just it’s contribution to the processing of visual stimuli in object recognition but also has been found to be a vital area with regards to simple processing of the visual field, difficulties with perceptual tasks and spatial awareness, and the location of unique single cells that possible explain the IT cortex’s relation to memory.
Anatomy of Inferior Temporal Gyrus
[edit]The temporal lobe is unique to primates. In humans, the IT cortex is more complex than their relative primate counterparts. The human inferior temporal cortex consists of the inferior temporal gyrus, the middle temporal gyrus, and the fusiform gyrus. When looking at the brain laterally - that is from the side and looking at the surface of the temporal lobe - the inferior temporal gyrus is along the bottom portion of the temporal lobe, and is separated from the middle temporal gyrus located directly above by the superior temporal sulcus. Additionally, some processing of the visual field that corresponds to the ventral stream of visual processing occurs in the lower portion of the superior temporal gyrus closest to the superior temporal sulcus. The ventral view of the brain - meaning from looking above the brain and downwards - reveals the inferior temporal gyrus is separated from the fusiform gyrus by the occipital-temporal sulcus. This human inferior temporal cortex is much more complex than that of other primates: non-human primates have an inferior temporal cortex that is not divided into unique regions such as humans' inferior temporal gyrus, fusiform gyrus, or middle temporal gyrus.[4]
This region of the brain corresponds to the inferior temporal cortex and is responsible for visual object recognition and receives processed visual information. The inferior temporal cortex in primates has specific regions dedicated to processing different visual stimuli processed and organized by the different layers of the striate cortex and extra-striate cortex. The information from the V1 –V5 regions of the geniculate and tectopulvinar pathways are radiated to the IT cortex via the ventral stream: visual information specifically related to the color and form of the visual stimuli. Through comparative research between primates - humans and non-human primates - results indicate that the IT cortex plays a significant role in visual shape processing. This is supported by functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) data collected by researchers comparing this neurological process between humans and macaques.[5]
Single-Cell Function in the Inferior Temporal Gyrus
[edit]The understanding at the single-cell level of the IT cortex and its role of utilizing memory to identify objects and or process the visual field based on color and form visual information is a relatively recent in neuroscience. Early research indicated that the cellular connections of the temporal lobe to other memory associated areas of the brain – namely the hippocampus, the amygdala, the prefrontal cortex, among others. These cellular connections have recently been found to explain unique elements of memory, suggesting that unique single-cells can be linked to specific unique types and even specific memories. Research into the single-cell understanding of the IT cortex reveals many compelling characteristics of these cells: single-cells with similar selectivity of memory are clustered together across the cortical layers of the IT cortex; the temporal lobe neurons have recently been shown to display learning behaviors and possibly relate to long-term memory; and, cortical memory within the IT cortex is likely to be enhanced over time thanks to the influence of the afferent-neurons of the medial-temporal region.
Further research of the single-cells of the IT cortex suggests that these cells not only have a direct link to the visual system pathway but also are deliberate in the visual stimuli they respond to: in certain cases, the single-cell IT cortex neurons do not initiate responses when spots or slits, namely simple visual stimuli, are present in the visual field; however, when complicated objects are put in place, this initiates a response in the single-cell neurons of the IT cortex. This provides evidence that not only are the single-cell neurons of the IT cortex related in having a unique specific response to visual stimuli but rather that each individual single-cell neuron has a specific response to a specific stimuli. The same study also reveals how the magnitude of the response of these single-cell neurons of the IT cortex do not change due to color and size but are only influenced by the shape. This led to even more interesting observations where specific IT neurons have been linked to the recognition of faces and hands. This is very interesting as to the possibility of relating to neurological disorders of prosopagnosia and explaining the complexity and interest in the human hand. Additional research form this study goes into more depth on the role of "face neurons" and "hand neurons" involved in the IT cortex.
The significance of the single-cell function in the IT cortex is that it is another pathway in addition to the lateral geniculate pathway that processes most visual system: this raises questions about how does it benefit our visual information processing in addition to normal visual pathways and what other functional units are involved in additional visual information processing.[6]
Further Research and Unknowns
[edit]There is currently major interest in the field of visual stimuli processing in the brain and its relation to the inferior temporal cortex. Much has recently been uncovered through modern and complicated techniques of magnetic resonance imaging, and even by sifting through archives of decades old studies and analyzing the results of their experiments on patients whose IT cortex has been lesioned. The fact is that while a lot has been uncovered about this very important system in day to day processes in the brain, there are still many questions that remain about the IT cortex. The studies, the experiments, and advancements in neuroscience that have led to the current understanding of the IT cortex has also simultaneously revealed as many questions as answers. The main questions raised by new understandings of the IT cortex can lead to significant advancements and understanding of the brain if further research and experimentation is pursued: these include additional understanding of the anatomy of the IT cortex and the visual system, the understanding and localizing of function to specific single-cell neurons of the IT cortex, how memory is associated between the IT cortex and neighboring brain structures and or memory is stored within the IT cortex itself, and how by studying the interesting IT cortex a more general understanding about the function of the brain and its associated structures can be acquired.
In order for an external link, you need brackets... College
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[edit]The place that brings students the most joy: HERE
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[edit]linking to another Wikipedia page: Inferior temporal gyrus
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[edit]Learning how to cite a source....[7]
I like brainz...
References
[edit]- ^ Kolb, B; Whishaw, I. Q. (2014). An Introduction to Brain and Behavior (Fourth ed.). New York, NY: Worth. p. 282-312.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Gross, C. G. (2008). "Inferior temporal cortex". Scholarpedia. 3 (3(12):7294): 7294. doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.7294.
- ^ Kolb, B; Whishaw, I. Q. (2014). An Introduction to Brain and Behavior (Fourth ed.). New York, NY: Worth. p. 282-312.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Pessoa, L., Tootell, R., Ungerleider L.G. (2008). "Visual Perception of Objects". Fundamental Neuroscience (Third Edition). Academic Press.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Denys, Katrien; Vanduffel, Wim; Fize, Denis; Nelissen, Koen; Peuskens, Hendrik; Van Essen, David; Orban, Guy A. (10). "The Processing of Visual Shape in the Cerebral Cortex of Human and Nonhuman Primates: A Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study". The Journal of Neuroscience. 24 (24(10): 2551-2565): 2551–2565. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3569-03.2004. PMID 15014131. S2CID 14191622.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=and|year=/|date=mismatch (help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ Gross, C. G. (2007). "Single Neuron Studies of Inferior Temporal Cortex". Neuropsychologia. 46 (3): 841–852. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.11.009. PMID 18155735. S2CID 16008718.
- ^ Miyakawa, N.; Hasegawa, I. (2013 Jun). "[Representation and readout of object information in macaque higher visual cortex]". Brain and Nerve = Shinkei Kenkyu No Shinpo. 65 (6): 643–50. PMID 23735526.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)