User:Akbugday/Environmental issues in Yemen

Located in West Asia, Yemen’s environmental issues involve mainly water scarcity, environmental pollution, and climate change. However, UNDP reported in 2023 that years of humanitarian and development crises undermine socio-economic development and worsen environmental conditions. A recent report ranked Yemen 163 out of 166 countries in terms of progress to meet Sustainable Development Goals.

Yemen has signed several international agreements: The Montreal Protocol, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, Kyoto Protocol, Civil Responsibility for Damage from Oil Pollution, and Paris Agreement .

Haraz mountains, Yemen

Geography of Yemen

The geography of Yemen is defined by its mountainous terrain. Despite 57% of total land area being desert, Yemen has many ecosystems and habitats. Coastal mangroves, shrub lands, and dunes from the coastal plains to the eastern deserts, rangelands comprising 40% of Yemen's territory. Mountain ranges create a diversity in climates and landscapes. About 3% of the land arable, providing a rich variety of natural habitats, species and genetic diversity, including many endemic species.

Alongside its diverse land geology, Yemen hosts 2,500 km long coastline, featuring elements of coral reefs to rocky and sandy coasts. Dependent on factors like elevation in the highlands or distance from the sea in coastal areas, in the winter, highland temperatures can drop below 15 degree Celcius and reach 25 degree Celcius in the summer, in coastal areas these temperatures are respectively 22.5 degree Celcius in the winter to 35 degree Celcius in the summer. From 1991 to 2020, average precipitation is 190.01 milimeters, though it must be noted precipitation tends to decline from west to east and central areas receive relatlvely low amounts of precipitation dependent on elevation and time of year.

Climate Change

Impact of 2020 flooding in Yemen

Yemen is highly vulnerable to drought, extreme flooding, pests, sudden disease outbreaks, changes of rainfall patterns, increased storm frequency and/or severity and sea level rise, despite being one of the lowest GHG emitting countries in the world. It is the 22nd most vulnerable and 12th least ready country to respond to the effects of climate change.

Indeed, UNDP reported in 2023 that temperatures across Yemen have been rising for at least six decades and are expected to continue warming through 2050.  A recent report ranked Yemen 163 out of 166 countries in terms of progress to meet Sustainable Development Goals.

Yemen’s economy is based on agriculture and small-scale farming, and its agriculture is highly vulnerable to climate change. Over 75% of the Yemeni population engages in rural-based farming and pastoralism, relying on favorable climactic conditions for economic sustenance.

One of the sectors highly affected by climate change is beekeeping. Dating back to the 10th century BC, beekeeping and honey production are an ancient practice in Yemen and, dependent on climatic and environmental factors now highly vulnerable to climate change, produce some of the world's finest and most expensive honey. Climate change and conflict in Yemen now jeopardize the livelihoods of 100,000 families in the Yemeni beekeeping business. Once valued at $500 million annually, frequent floods, extreme weather, and escalating urbanization degrade bee pastures and damage beehives, potentially resulting in a 30% drop due to the decreased honey yields. Many beekeepers, like Laila Sinan from Sana'a, struggle to sustain their bees, feeding them artificially because of the harsh weather. [1]

WRITE THESE IN YOUR OWN WORDS Add impact on livestock UNDP 2023 report, p. 29 “nearly 70 percent of respondents participated in livestock farming, and the sale of livestock products was the first or second main source of income for roughly 25 percent. Climate change and continued environmental degradation could affect grazing land and threaten livestock farming, while rising temperatures could amplify the burden of disease (The World bank 2010). flooding and other natural disasters can lead to the direct loss of livestock.”

Impact of flooding: “In recent years, flooding has killed hundreds of Yemenis and affected hundreds of thousands, including many already displaced or made vulnerable by the conflict” (UNDP 2023 p. 29)

Add https://holmakhdar.org/news/investigations/3459/  Incidence of disease, dengue fever- add 2 sentences

NOTE: Reliable source, Holm Akhdar for Environmental Studies and Consultancy (an environmental research and consultancy firm based in Aden, Yemen) It provides investigative reports on environment since 2012. Most of the stories are in Arabic but GoogleTranslate does a good job with English translation

Water access disruptions during 2015 war in Yemen

Water issues

Water issues in Yemen are based on two aspects: water shortage and water quality.

Yemen has suffered from intense water shortages owing to its climate, water mismanagement, and population growth. Projected to deplete it's water resources in 2017, the capital Sana'a has not yet run out of water but still continues to grapple with critical shortages, losing four to six meters of groundwater per year.[2] As a result, residents are forced to seek alternative water sources. The ongoing conflict has exacerbated the situation, with over 16 million Yemenis lacking access to safe drinking water due to damaged infrastructure and limited access to safe water, reaching over 30% of the population.[3]

Impact of Conflict and Humanitarian Conflict

Yemen's long-running war has destroyed the country's water infrastructure, making contamination and shortages worse. Millions of people have less access to clean water as a result of attacks on water facilities by both sides of the conflict.[4] Over 1.9 million probable cases of cholera have been documented since 2017 as a result of the devastation of sanitation systems.[5] Conflict-related displacement has also put more strain on host communities' limited water supplies.[6]

Agricultural Impact on Water Quality

While the global average of the agricultural impact on water withdrawal is 70%, in Yemen, agriculture accounts for 90–95% of water withdrawal. Qat (Catha edulis, Bushman's Tea) consumes over a quarter (27%) of all water in the country.[7] Qat production also uses over 80 different pesticides to increase yields and preserve freshness.[8]

ADD COFFEE https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/2023/05/agriculture-and-yemens-economy?lang=en AND QAT DILEMMA

(REVISE THIS- Different reports put water consumption needs of qat at different percentages majority about 30% - update the source with a recent source, and emphasize the complexity of qat cultivation- humanitarian crisis- displacement- disruption of agricultural production patterns, and local markets- narcotic crop with high market value but requires 5 years to grow- availability of local, regional and international markets for qat = expansion of qat cultivation & increase in groundwater use. There are also cash crop that require an abundance of water that continue to heighten groundwater depletion. Qat , a mild narcotc plant, in particular uses over 40% of Yemen's renewable water resources. )=== Water quality === Degraded water supply infrastructure is a significant factor in Yemen's current water quality challenges. Community water sources were overburdened or dysfunctional before the crisis, and have endured conflict-related damage and further strain due to the influx of IDPs.

WHO- https://www.emro.who.int/yemen/news/who-and-kSrelief-join-efforts-to-improve-water-sanitation-and-hygiene-services-in-yemen.html --Cholera outbreak- reasons-

REVISE WITH NEW INFO Bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, cholera, and typhoid fever are leading illnesses in Yemen. More than 30,000 Yemenis, suffer from acute watery diarrhea in 2011 alone. Lack of access to improved water supply is responsible for the spread of water-borne diseases. Study of surface water and ground water in Yemen shows that the upstream site of surface water contains high concentration physico-chemical parameters. Leachate composition at Ibb landfill is very dangerous for polluting the groundwater, surface water and soil. All tested parameters except Ni and Cr in Ibb landfill leachate exceed the permissible limit required for treated wastewater discharge determined by Yemen's Ministry of Water and Environment (1999).}

Oil tanker FSO Safer off the Yemen coast

Pollution

The FSO Safer, a deteriorating oil tanker moored off Yemen's Red Sea coast, poses a significant environmental threat due to its potential to cause a massive oil spill. The vessel holds about 150,000 tons of crude oil but is structurally weak due to prolonged neglect and ongoing conflict. An oil spill from the Safer could devastate marine ecosystems, fisheries, and coastal communities, exacerbating Yemen's humanitarian crisis. Access restrictions and security issues have hampered international efforts to address the situation, underscoring the complex interplay between environmental hazards and geopolitical instability in the region.[9]

Policy

{ALL THIS INFO NEEDS TO BE UPDATED The reform program in Yemen is on track and is beginning to take effect. Reforms in urban water and sanitation started more than a decade ago. Network coverage has expanded rapidly, and service standards have improved whilst costs for most connected consumers remain highly affordable. In 1997, Cabinet Resolution 237 was issued which embraced a policy of decentralization, corporatization, commercialization, separation of service delivery and regulatory function. Established partnership with the private sector increases efficiency, improves service delivery and ultimately reduces the cost burden on government. These reforms have been incorporated into the national water strategy (NWSSIP, 2004) and into the update of the strategy currently being prepared. }

WHO- https://www.emro.who.int/yemen/news/who-and-kSrelief-join-efforts-to-improve-water-sanitation-and-hygiene-services-in-yemen.html refer back to Cholera outbreak- reasons- what is being done to address these – REWRITE THIS SECTION {Humanitarian organization also make significant strides to IMPROVE the water QUALITY and access. The Yemen Relief and Reconstruction Foundation aided displaced individuals and communities thousands of water fiters. UNICEF has also contributed, when it comes to solar-powered wells and water purification initatives.

Wadis in the desert ecosystems of Yemen

Desertification

Overgrazing of pastureland is endemic. Soil erosion and desertification are also hazards in Yemen. Agricultural lands in Yemen are subject to various degrees of degradation and decline of soil productivity. Desertification largely threatens the natural resource-base.

The UNDP report on climate change in Yemen, desertification is a major environmental issue intensified by climate change and human activities. The country faces severe droughts, unpredictable rainfall, and higher temperatures, all contributing to the degradation of arid and semi-arid land that makes up over 90% of its territory. This loss of arable land impacts agricultural productivity, exacerbates water scarcity, and increases food insecurity. The ongoing desertification process also strains Yemen's already limited resources, fueling conflict and social instability. Efforts to address this challenge focus on climate adaptation and sustainable resource management to support long-term human development.

Actions to Combat Desertification

Yemen’s approach to tackling desertification centers on safeguarding its agricultural lands and optimizing scarce water resources. Key strategies include reforestation and soil conservation, aimed at enhancing long-term land productivity. A collaborative approach empowers local communities to become stewards of the land, integrating their knowledge into sustainable practices. What stands out is the emphasis on environmental education, underscoring the need for public awareness in creating resilient landscapes. These initiatives align with regional partnerships, reflecting a unified effort to counter the impact of desertification across Yemen’s vulnerable ecosystems.

Food Insecurity

Desertification in Yemen significantly undermines food security by decreasing the amount of arable land available for farming, which in turn lowers crop yields. As soil quality declines and water becomes scarcer, farmers struggle to maintain production, leaving the population more susceptible to hunger and malnutrition. This cycle of land degradation and reduced productivity deepens Yemen’s food insecurity, posing a critical threat to its already vulnerable communities.

Waste management

Yemen's waste management system faces severe limitations due to prolonged conflict, economic instability, and limited resources. Yemen's City Cleaning and Improvement Funds (CCIFs), which are responsible for waste management services, have restricted operational capacity and funding shortages. These services in Yemen have been in place for years but faced challenges, hindered the ability of local service providers to maintain and expand waste collection. Public health risks grew and has impacting Yemen's most vulnerable communities.

These challenges have led to issues such as uncollected waste and unmanaged landfills. (CITE) In response, initiatives like those from the Global Partnership for Results-Based Approaches (GPRBA) are helping improve waste management infrastructure in key cities like Sana’a and Aden, providing necessary equipment and encouraging gender inclusivity within technical roles​.

Dracaena cinnabari (Dragon's Blood Tree) endemic plant in Yemen

Biodiversity

Yemen’s ecosystems and biodiversity are under serious threat due to climate change, environmental degradation, and continuing social-political issues. The country is home to unique species, making conservation crucial for protecting its biodiversity. However, growing pressures like habitat loss, unsustainable resource use, and changing climate patterns make it increasingly difficult to sustain Yemen’s natural resources.

Efforts, including the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP), focus on creating protected areas, conserving agricultural biodiversity, and encouraging sustainable practices. With support from international organizations like the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Global Environment Facility (GEF), Yemen aims to strengthen local conservation efforts and manage natural resources more sustainably​.

Sustainable Development Goals

The Yemeni government faces critical issues, including water scarcity, declining oil reserves, and political instability. Its National Assessment of Sustainable Development emphasizes aligning social and environmental goals with economic growth, social progress, and efficient resource use. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) helped Yemen advance in poverty reduction, education, and healthcare. Building on MDGs, Yemen’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) focus on climate action, renewable energy, and sustainable agriculture to strengthen resilience and expand access to essential services, especially in the context of ongoing humanitarian challenges.

War and Humanitarian Crises

Yemen is facing one of the largest humanitarian crises in this world. The conflict in Yemen has escalated into a dire humanitarian crisis, with over 23.4 million people, including 12.9 million children, in need of assistance. Malnutrition rates have soared, with around 2.2 million children acutely malnourished, and nearly 500,000 children facing severe malnutrition. Access to clean water, sanitation, and healthcare has deteriorated, leading to the spread of preventable diseases such as cholera. Education has also suffered, with over 2 million children out of school due to damaged infrastructure and insecurity, severely impacting Yemen’s future generations.