User:Aemilius Adolphin/sandbox

Aemilius Adolphin/sandbox
Author	Michel Houellebecq
Original title	Extension du domaine de la lutte
Translator	Paul Hammond
Language	French
Publisher	Éditions Maurice Nadeau (French edition) \|Serpent's Tail (British edition)
Publication date	1994
Publication place	France
Published in English	1998

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Useful stuff

Disruptive editing

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Is tendentious: continues editing an article or group of articles in pursuit of a certain point for an extended time despite opposition from other editors. Tendentious editors not only add material; some engage in disruptive deletions as well, e.g. repeatedly removing reliable sources posted by other editors.
Is unwilling or unable to satisfy Wikipedia:Verifiability; fails to cite sources, cites unencyclopedic sources, misrepresents reliable sources, or performs original research.
Engages in "disruptive cite-tagging"; adds unjustified {{citation needed}} or {{more citations needed}} tags to an article when the content tagged is already sourced, uses such tags to suggest that properly sourced article content is problematic.
Fails to engage in consensus building:
1. repeatedly disregards other editors' questions or requests for explanations concerning edits or objections to edits;
2. repeatedly disregards other editors' explanations for their edits.
Fails to recognize, rejects, or ignores community input: resists moderation and/or requests for comment, continuing to edit in pursuit of a certain point despite an opposing consensus from impartial editors.

Disputed articles

WP:Accuracy dispute

Centering text

<div style="text-align: center;">Centered text</div>

Italics

Invisible comment

Reply to

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Non-breaking space

26 January 1788

Attribution

Added information including content from History of Australia; see that page's history for attribution

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Reply to

Is the template for pinging someone.

My user pages

User: Aemilius Adolphin/Slavery draft

Original research

No original research. [[WP:originalresearch]]

Pronunciation

Australian English pronunciation: [ˈmælbən]

Trivia

Neutrality

Céline

Works cited

Gibault, François (1985). Céline: 3e partie. Cavalier de l'Apocalypse (1944–1961). Paris: Mercure de France. ISBN 2-7152-1247-X.
Empson, William (1935). Some Versions of Pastoral. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books (published 1966).
Jünger, Ernst (2019). "Chapter I, First Parisian Journal". A German Officer in Occupied Paris: The War Journals, 1941-1945. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231548380.
McCarthy, Patrick (1976). Céline. New York: The Viking Press.
O'Connell, David (1976). Louis-Ferdinand Céline. Boston: Twayne Publishers. ISBN 978-0-8057-6256-3.
Sautermeister, Christine (2013). Louis Ferdinand Céline à Sigmaringen Novembre 1944 – Mars 1945: Chronique d´un séjour controversé. Paris: Édition Écriture. ISBN 978-2-35905-095-0.
Thomas, Merlin (1980). Louis-Ferdinand Céline. New York: New Direction. ISBN 0-8112-0754-4.
Vitoux, Frédéric (1992). Céline: A Biography. New York. ISBN 1-55778-255-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

Genocide in Australia

Expanded lead to better summarise article and reflect new content. See Talk

Hello all

I have expanded the lead so that it better summarises the article.

Happy to discuss

Lead (new)

Many scholars have argued that the British colonisation of Australia and subsequent actions of various Australian governments and individuals involved acts of genocide against Indigenous Australians.^[1] They have used numerous definitions of genocide including the intentional destruction of Indigenous groups as defined in the 1948 United Nations genocide convention, or broader definitions involving cultural genocide, ethnocide and genocidal massacres.^[2]^[3] They have frequently cited the near extermination of Aboriginal Tasmanians,^[4] mass killings during the frontier wars,^[5] forced removals of Indigenous children from their families (now known as the Stolen Generations),^[6] and policies of forced assimilation as genocidal.^[7]

When Britain established its first Australian colony in 1788, the Aboriginal population is estimated to have been 300,000 to more than one million people^[8]^[9]^[10] comprising about 600 tribes or nations and 250 languages with various dialects.^[11]^[12] By 1901 the Aboriginal population had fallen to just over 90,000 people, mainly due to disease, frontier violence and the disruption of traditional society.^[8] In the 20th century many Aboriginal people were confined to reserves, missions and institutions, and government regulations controlled most aspects of their lives. Thousands of Indigenous children of mixed heritage were removed from their families.^[13]

There is an ongoing debate over whether imperial, colonial and Australian governments intended to destroy Indigenous peoples in whole or in part, or whether their intention was to end resistance to settler colonisalism, protect Indigenous people from settler violence and promote the welfare of Indigenous people by assimilating them into British-Australian society.^[1] There is also debate over whether the legal definition of genocide sufficiently captures the range of harm inflicted on the Indigenous peoples of Australia.^[14] Since 1997 the state, territory and federal governments of Australia have formally apologised for the stolen generations and for other injustices against Indigenous Australians.^[15]

Lead (old)

Many historians have argued that Indigenous Australians were victims of genocide, involving systematic and deliberate actions taken primarily by British colonists and their descendants aimed at eradicating Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures, languages, and people. [Unsourced. This is not the definition of genocide.] Posited motivations for genocide varied, and included a desire to preserve a "white Australia",^[16] or assimilating Indigenous populations "for their own good".^[17] [Removed. Motivation is irrelevant. Only genocidel intent is relevant.]

There is debate among concurring scholars and Indigenous people about the exact definition and type of genocide that has occurred.^[18]^[19]^[20] Actions of settlers against Indigenous Australians includes mass killings during the frontier wars, forced removals of children (now known as the Stolen Generations), and policies of forced assimilation by various Australian government as acts of genocide. hat sought to extinguish Indigenous Australian identity and cultural practices.^[21]^[22] These actions have variously been described as terrorism, ethnocide, and genocide, including cultural genocide, against the Indigenous peoples.^[23]^[24] [Replaced with better sources. Jalata is not a reknowned scholar and doesn't know the difference between English and British. Looks like junk source.]

Added content to clarify main points of debate. See Talk

Scholarly debate

I have further expanded this section to clarify the main points of debate. I have reworded some content to better reflect the content of the cited sources.

Scholarly debate (new version)

There is an ongoing scholarly debate about whether there were acts of genocide in Australia and, if so, the form they took.^[25] Robert van Krieken argues that the debate often involves how broadly the concept of genocide ought to be understood. Narrow conceptions of genocide, such as that in the UN convention, are restricted to killing and other forms of physical elimination, whereas the broader definition includes other ways a human group can be destroyed, including the destruction of cultural identity.^[26]

Scholars are also divided over whether colonists and Australian governments acted with an intention to destroy Indigenous peoples in whole or in part and therefore committed genocide as defined by the UN convention. Reynolds argues that while some settlers and colonial officials talked of extermination of Aboriginal people in the context of the frontier wars, this was not official policy and killing of Aboriginal groups ended once their violent resistance to colonisation ended.^[27] Barta, however, argues that conflict between an expanding settlement and traditional owners of the land established "relations of genocide" and that a genocidal intent can be inferred from the actions of government agents which were contrary to declared policy.^[28]

Many scholars argue that the actions taken against Indigenous Australians were not systematic or intentional like other genocidal events.^[29] Others also argue that the high death toll among Indigenous Australians following colonisation was mainly a result of the introduction of diseases, and that deliberate acts of violence and the effects of dispossession did not meet the legal definition of genocide.^[30]^[31] Lawyer Michael Legge, however, concludes: "Australia's record on Indigenous Australians is at best ambiguous, and at worst an example of genocide by eugenics".^[32]

Scholarly debate (old version)

There remains ongoing debate about the characterisation of the historical events that Indigenous Australians faced as a form of "genocide".^[33]^{[page needed]} Some argue that the actions meet the legal definition outlined in the United Nations Genocide Convention, while others express a contrary view. Scholars such as Robert van Krieken have argued that the debate often involves a continuing dispute as to how broadly the concept of genocide ought to be understood. Narrow conceptions of genocide are restricted to killing, whereas the broader definition includes other ways a human group can be "eliminated", including the destruction of cultural identity.^[34]^{[page needed]} ~~Some scholars have said in relation to this "Australia's record on Indigenous Australians is at best ambiguous, and at worst an example of genocide by eugenics".^[32]~~ [Moved as concluding summary opinion.]

Many scholars argue that the actions taken against Indigenous Australians were not systematic or intentional like other genocidal events.^[35] Others also argue that the high death toll among Indigenous Australians following colonisation was mainly a result of the introduction of diseases, and that deliberate acts of violence and the effects of dispossession did not meet the legal definition of genocide.^[36]^[37] ~~Another issue is the impact of displacement of Indigenous Australians.~~^[37] [Remove. Many indigenous people were displaced from their traditional lands, but displacement isn't a critera for genocide. The article uses the word in the context of post-modern gibberish.]

Alleged acts of genocide (old version)

Some acts of genocide perpetrated against Indigenous Australians included:

Massacres:^[38]^[39] particularly in the frontier wars, there were numerous recorded and unrecorded deliberate massacres of Indigenous Australians by colonists, and by Australian State Police and militias.^[40] These acts were often carried out pre-emptively, or in retaliation against, violent resistance by Indigenous Australians against the occupation of their lands.^[41] ~~In some instances massacres were carried out merely due to motivations involving hatred and racial prejudice of the perpetrator.~~ [Struck out unsourced statement. Replace Bruce Elder reference with a scholarly source (Ryan 2023).]
Dispersal campaigns. Some scholars have described dispersal campaigns undertaken in the 1800s, aimed at dispersing and displacing indigenous Australians from their lands as a form of genocide.^[42] An example of this was a collaboration between settlers and government authorities Western Australia to erase the presence of Indigenous Australians from the southwest of WA between 1900 and 1940.^[43] [More accurate wording.]
Forced removals: policies enacted by Australian state governments involved the forced removal of Indigenous children from their families.^[44]^[45] A well-known example of this practice has been acknowledged by the term "Stolen Generations",^[46] whereby children were placed in institutions or forcibly adopted by non-Indigenous families with the intent of assimilating them into white society, and discouraging indigenous languages and culture.^[47]^[48]^[49] These policies were sometimes undertaken by eugenicists, such as A. O. Neville, and argued for on the basis of ostensible "benefits" bestowed upon victims of the practice.^[50] [Source doesn't say this. Used more accurate wording.] It was a common early 20th century view that Indigenous Australians were dying out.^[51] Neville was quoted in 1937 as saying:^[52]

"Are we going to have a population of 1,000,000 blacks in the Commonwealth, or are we going to merge them into our white community and eventually forget that there ever were any aborigines in Australia?"

Assimilation policies: other legislation and policies were designed to assimilate Indigenous Australians into European-Australian society.^[53] In many schools, children were punished for speaking their native language. Additional restrictions were placed on movement, marriage, employment, and the practice of traditional ceremonies and legal systems.^[54] Collectively, these policies have been argued by some scholars as an act of cultural genocide. Some scholars have argued against the characterisation of these policies after 1945 as genocidal in intent, and have argued that they were aimed instead at ensuring survival of indigenous peoples.^[7]
Ongoing cultural genocidal policies: a minority of scholars consider genocidal structuring dynamics continue to operate in Australia, however the opinions of these scholars are a distinct minority opinion in genocide scholarship and popular discourse.^[42]
Ongoing economic genocidal policies: several authors have viewed coercive government economic programs targeted at Aboriginal people, such as the cashless debit card, as a form of "redemptive violence" contributing to the ongoing cultural genocide of Indigenous peoples via legitimising their continued cultural and economic assimilation.^[55]^[56] Deleted. Sources do not support content. they do not state that there was economic genocide and this term is not defined and not generally accepted among genocide scholars. One source cites Altman as arguing that work for the dole and welfare debit cards are a form of cultural genocide, but the argument is not developed.

Add these sources

Evans, Raymond (2023). "Genocide in Northern Australia, 1824-1928". In Kiernan, Ben; Blackhawk, Ned; Madley, Benjamin; Taylor, Rebe (eds.). The Cambridge World History of Genocide. Vol. II: Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108765480. ISBN 978-1-108-48643-9.

Flood, Josephine (2019). The Original Australians: The Story of the Aboriginal People (2nd ed.). Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 9781760527075.

Haebich, Anna; Kinnane, Steve (2013). "Indigenous Australia". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 2: The Commonwealth of Australia. Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107011540.

Kiernan, Ben; Madley, Benjamin; Taylor, Rebe (2023). "Introduction to Volume II". In Kiernan, Ben; Blackhawk, Ned; Madley, Benjamin; Taylor, Rebe (eds.). The Cambridge World History of Genocide. Vol. II: Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108765480. ISBN 978-1-108-48643-9.

McCalman, Janet; Kippen, Rebecca (2013). "Population and health". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-1070-1153-3.

Ryan, Lyndall (2023). "Frontier Massacres in Australia, 1788-1928". In Kiernan, Ben; Blackhawk, Ned; Madley, Benjamin; Taylor, Rebe (eds.). The Cambridge World History of Genocide. Vol. II: Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One. Cambridge University Press. pp. 461–480. doi:10.1017/9781108765480. ISBN 978-1-108-48643-9.

van Krieken, Robert (2008). "Cultural Genocide in Australia". In Stone, Dan (ed.). The Historiography of Genocide. Baisingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781403992192.

Veth, Peter; O'Connor, Sue (2013). "The past 50,000 years: an archaeological view". In Bashford, Alison; MacIntyre, Stuart (eds.). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-01153-3.

Leftover stuff

The colonisation of Australia by the British, starting in 1788, marked the beginning of a catastrophic impact on the Indigenous populations, who had lived continuously on the continent for over 80,000 years prior to European settlement.^[57]^[58]^[59] Some of the catastrophic impacts upon the indigenous population came about somewhat inadvertently (e.g. those caused by disease introduction, or agricultural displacement^[60]). However, other impacts upon the population were more deliberate, and would fairly be described by modern scholars as historical acts of genocide.^[61]

The segregation of Aboriginal people on reserves and in institutions was never systematically accomplished due to funding constraints, differing policy priorities in the states and territories, and resistance from Aboriginal people. In the more densely settled areas of Australia, about 20 per cent of Aboriginal people lived on reserves in the 1920s. The majority lived in camps on the fringes of country towns and a small percentage lived in cities. During the Great Depression more Aboriginal people moved to reserves and missions for food and shelter. By 1941 almost half of the Aboriginal population of New South Wales lived on reserves.^[62]

In northern Australia, the majority of employed Aboriginal people worked in the pastoral industry where they lived in camps, often with their extended families. Many also camped on the margins of towns and reserves where they could avoid most of the controls imposed by the administrators of reserves, compounds and missions.^[63]

The 1937 Native Welfare conference of state and Commonwealth officials endorsed a policy of biological absorption of mixed-descent Aboriginal Australians into the white community.

[T]he destiny of the natives of aboriginal origin, but not of the full blood, lies in their ultimate absorption by the people of the Commonwealth and it therefore recommends that all efforts be directed to that end.^[64]

The officials saw the policy of Aboriginal assimilation by absorption into the white community as progressive, aimed at eventually achieving civil and economic equality for mixed-descent Aboriginal people.^[64]

... efforts of all State authorities should be directed towards the education of children of mixed aboriginal blood at white standards, and their subsequent employment under the same conditions as whites with a view to their taking their place in the white community on an equal footing with the whites.^[65]

The following decades saw an increase in the number of Aboriginal Australians of mixed descent removed from their families, although the states and territories progressively adopted a policy of cultural, rather than biological, assimilation, and justified removals on the grounds of child welfare.^[66] In 1940, New South Wales became the first state to introduce a child welfare model whereby Aboriginal children of mixed descent were removed from their families under general welfare provisions by court order. Other jurisdictions introduced a welfare model after the war.^[65]

Sources

Banivanua Mar, Tracey; Edmonds, Penelope (2013). "Indigenous and settler relations". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-1070-1153-3.

Barta, Tony (2023). "A Very British Genocide: Acknowledgement of Indigenous Destruction in the Founding of Australia and New Zealand". In Kiernan, Ben; Blackhawk, Ned; Madley, Benjamin; Taylor, Rebe (eds.). The Cambridge World History of Genocide. Vol. II: Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One. Cambridge University Press. pp. 46–68. doi:10.1017/9781108765480. ISBN 978-1-108-48643-9.

Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart, eds. (2013). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-1070-1153-3.

Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart, eds. (2013). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 2: The Commonwealth of Australia. Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107011540.

Biggar, Nigel (2023). Colonialism: a Moral Reckoning. London: Wiliam Collins. ISBN 9780008511647.

Blainey, Geoffrey (2015). The Story of Australia's People: The Rise and Fall of Ancient Australia. Sydney and Melbourne: Viking. ISBN 9780670078714.

Bowern, Claire, ed. (2013). The Oxford Guide to Australian Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198824978.

Broome, Richard (2019). Aboriginal Australians: A history since 1788 (5th ed.). Crowsnest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 9781760528218.

Clark, Anna; Ashton, Paul (eds.) (2013). Australian History Now. Sydney: NewSouth Publishing. ISBN 9781742233710.

Evans, Julie; Grimshaw, Patricia; Philips, David; Swain, Shurlee (2003). Equal subjects, unequal rights: Indigenous peoples in British settler colonies, 1830–1910 (PDF). Manchester University Press. doi:10.7228/manchester/9780719060038.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-71906-003-8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 February 2023. Retrieved 7 February 2023.

Evans, Raymond (2023). "Genocide in Northern Australia, 1824-1928". In Kiernan, Ben; Blackhawk, Ned; Madley, Benjamin; Taylor, Rebe (eds.). The Cambridge World History of Genocide. Vol. II: Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108765480. ISBN 978-1-108-48643-9.

Flood, Josephine (2019). The Original Australians: The Story of the Aboriginal People (2nd ed.). Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 9781760527075.

Ford, Lisa; Roberts, David Andrew (2013). "Expansion, 1820–1850". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-1070-1153-3.

Haebich, Anna; Kinnane, Steve (2013). "Indigenous Australia". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 2: The Commonwealth of Australia. Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107011540.

Hirst, John (2014). Australian History in 7 Questions. Melbourne: Black Inc. ISBN 9781863956703.

Johnson, Louise C.; Luckins, Tanja; Walker, David (2022). The Story of Australia. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 9781760297084.

Johnson, Murray; McFarlane, Ian (2015). Van Diemen's Land: An Aboriginal History. University of New South Wales Press. ISBN 9781742234212.

Karskens, Grace (2013). "The early colonial presence, 1788–1822". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-1070-1153-3.

Kiernan, Ben; Madley, Benjamin; Taylor, Rebe (2023). "Introduction to Volume II". In Kiernan, Ben; Blackhawk, Ned; Madley, Benjamin; Taylor, Rebe (eds.). The Cambridge World History of Genocide. Vol. II: Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108765480. ISBN 978-1-108-48643-9.

McCalman, Janet; Kippen, Rebecca (2013). "Population and health". In Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-1070-1153-3.

MacIntyre, Stuart; Clark, Anna (2004). The History Wars (2nd ed.). Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. ISBN 0522851282.

Macintyre, Stuart (1999). "Australia and the Empire". In Winks, Robin (ed.). The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume V: Historiography. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191542411.

Macintyre, Stuart; Clark, Anna (2004). The History Wars (2nd ed.). Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. ISBN 0522851282.

Macintyre, Stuart (2020). A Concise History of Australia (5th ed.). Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108728485.

Reynolds, Henry (2001). An Indelible Stain?: The Question of Genocide in Australian History. Ringwood, Victoria: Viking. ISBN 0670912204.

Reynolds, Henry (2012). A History of Tasmania. Melbourne and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521548373.

Reynolds, Henry (2022). Forgotten War (2nd ed.). Sydney: NewSouth. ISBN 9781742237596.

Ryan, Lyndall (2023). "Frontier Massacres in Australia, 1788-1928". In Kiernan, Ben; Blackhawk, Ned; Madley, Benjamin; Taylor, Rebe (eds.). The Cambridge World History of Genocide. Vol. II: Genocide in the Indigenous, Early Modern and Imperial Worlds, from c.1535 to World War One. Cambridge University Press. pp. 461–480. doi:10.1017/9781108765480. ISBN 978-1-108-48643-9.

Veth, Peter; O'Connor, Sue (2013). "The past 50,000 years: an archaeological view". In Bashford, Alison; MacIntyre, Stuart (eds.). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-01153-3.

Unformatted

Adhikari, Mohamed (25 July 2022). Destroying to Replace: Settler Genocides of Indigenous Peoples. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company. ISBN 978-1647920548.

Boyce, James (2010). Van Diemen's Land. Melbourne: Black Inc. ISBN 978-1-86395-491-4.

Evans, Raymond (2012). ""Pigmentia": Racial Fears and White Australia". In Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History. Berghahn Books. pp. 103–124. doi:10.2307/j.ctt9qdg7m.9. ISBN 9781782381693. JSTOR j.ctt9qdg7m.9.

Haebich, Anna (1992). For Their Own Good: Aborigines and Government in the South West of Western Australia, 1900–1940 (2nd ed.). Nedlands, Western Australia.

Haebich, Anna (2012). ""Clearing the Wheat Belt": Erasing the Indigenous Presence in the Southwest of Western Australia". In Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History. pp. 267–289. doi:10.2307/j.ctt9qdg7m.16. ISBN 9781782381693. JSTOR j.ctt9qdg7m.16.

Hughes, Robert (1987). The Fatal Shore. London: Pan. ISBN 0-330-29892-5.

Kociumbas, Jan (2012). "Genocide and Modernity in Colonial Australia, 1788-1850". In Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History. Berghahn Books. pp. 77–102. doi:10.2307/j.ctt9qdg7m.8. ISBN 9781782381693. JSTOR j.ctt9qdg7m.8.

Lawson, Tom (2014). The Last Man. London: I.B. Taurus. ISBN 978-1-78076-626-3.

Madley, Benjamin (2004). "Patterns of frontier genocide 1803–1910: the aboriginal Tasmanians, the Yuki of California, and the Herero of Namibia". Journal of Genocide Research. 6 (2): 167–192. doi:10.1080/1462352042000225930. S2CID 145079658.

Manne, Robert (2012). "Aboriginal Child Removal and the Question of Genocide, 1900–1940". In Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History. Berghahn Books. pp. 217–243. doi:10.2307/j.ctt9qdg7m.14. ISBN 9781782381693. JSTOR j.ctt9qdg7m.14.

McGregor, Russell (2012). "Governance, Not Genocide: Aboriginal Assimilation in the Postwar Era". In Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History. Berghahn Books. pp. 290–311. doi:10.2307/j.ctt9qdg7m.17. ISBN 9781782381693. JSTOR j.ctt9qdg7m.17.

Moses, A. Dirk (2012). "Genocide and Settler Society in Australian History". In Moses, A. Dirk (ed.). Genocide and Settler Society: Frontier Violence and Stolen Indigenous Children in Australian History. Berghahn Books. pp. 3–48. doi:10.2307/j.ctt9qdg7m.6. ISBN 9781782381693. JSTOR j.ctt9qdg7m.6.

Ørsted-Jensen, Robert (2011). Frontier History Revisited – Queensland and the 'History War'. Cooparoo, Brisbane, Qld: Lux Mundi Publishing. ISBN 9781466386822.

Reynolds, Henry (2001). An Indelible Stain?: The Question of Genocide in Australia's History. Sydney: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-67091-220-9.

Ryan, Lyndall (2012). Tasmanian Aborigines. Sydney: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-74237-068-2.

Sousa, Ashley Riley (2004). ""They will be hunted down like wild beasts and destroyed!": a comparative study of genocide in California and Tasmania". Journal of Genocide Research. 6 (2): 193–209. doi:10.1080/1462352042000225949. S2CID 109131060.

Napoleonic nobility

Dalí as "Marqués de Dalí de Púbol" Archived 30 June 2012 at archive.today – Boletín Oficial del Estado, the official gazette of the Spanish government

Hello there^[67]

Historiography of Australia

"South Australian women gain the vote: Overview". Parliament South Australia. Retrieved 5 September 2024.

Bashford, Alison; MacIntyre, Stuart (eds.) (2013). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-1070-1153-3.

Bashford, Alison; Macintyre, Stuart (eds.) (2013). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 2: The Commonwealth of Australia. Port Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107011540.

Biggar, Nigel (2023). Colonialism: a Moral Reckoning. London: Wiliam Collins. ISBN 9780008511647.

Bowern, Claire, ed. (2013). The Oxford Guide to Australian Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198824978.

Broome, Richard (2019). Aboriginal Australians: A history since 1788 (5th ed.). Crowsnest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 9781760528218.

Clark, Anna; Ashton, Paul (eds.) (2013). Australian History Now. Sydney: NewSouth Publishing. ISBN 9781742233710.

Flood, Josephine (2019). The Original Australians: The Story of the Aboriginal People (2nd ed.). Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 9781760527075.

Ford, Roger; Blake, Thom (1998). Indigenous Peoples in Southeast Queensland: an annotated guide to ethno-historical sources. Woolloonbabba, Qld: The Foundation for Aboriginal and Islander Research Action. ISBN 1876487003.

Jefferies, Anthony (2013). "Leichhardt: His contribution to Australian Aboriginal linguistics and ethnography 1843-44". Memoirs of the Queensland Museum – Culture 7(2): 633-652. Brisbane. ISSN 1440-4788. 7 (2): 634–652. ISSN 1440-4788.

Johnson, Murray; McFarlane, Ian (2015). Van Diemen's Land: An Aboriginal History. University of New South Wales Press. ISBN 9781742234212.

MacIntyre, Stuart; Clark, Anna (2004). The History Wars (2nd ed.). Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. ISBN 0522851282.

Macintyre, Stuart (1999). "Australia and the Empire". In Winks, Robin (ed.). The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume V: Historiography. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191542411.

Reynolds, Henry (2012). A History of Tasmania. Melbourne and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521548373.

Veth, Peter; O'Connor, Sue (2013). "The past 50,000 years: an archaeological view". In Bashford, Alison; MacIntyre, Stuart (eds.). The Cambridge History of Australia, Volume 1, Indigenous and Colonial Australia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-01153-3.

Turrbal people

History of Indigenous Australia

Lead

The history of Indigenous Australians began 50,000 to 65,000 years ago when humans first populated the Australian continental landmasses.^[68]^[69]^[70]^[71] This article covers the history of Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander peoples, two broadly defined groups which each include other sub-groups defined by language and culture. Human habitation of the Australian continent began with the migration of the ancestors of today's Aboriginal Australians by land bridges and short sea crossings from what is now Southeast Asia.^[72] The Aboriginal people spread throughout the continent, adapting to diverse environments and climate change to develop one of the oldest continuous cultures on Earth.^[73]^[74]

The earliest evidence of humans in Australia has been variously estimated, with most scholars, as of 2023, dating it between 50,000 and 65,000 years BP.^[70]^[75]^[76]^[77]

Culture (new version)

Torres Strait Islanders were culturally and linguistically distinct from mainland Aboriginal peoples. They were seafarers and obtained their livelihood from seasonal horticulture and the resources of their reefs and seas. Villages and agriculture also developed on some islands.^[78]^[79]

Munich agreement

Background

Czechoslovakia and defence treaties

The First Czechoslovak Republic was created in 1918 after the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the end of World War I. The Treaty of Saint-Germain recognized the independence of Czechoslovakia and the Treaty of Trianon defined the borders of the new state, which was divided in to the regions of Bohemia and Moravia in the west and Slovakia and Subcarpathian Rus' in the east.^[80]

Czechoslovakia sought to protect its territory from possible German, Austrian and Hungarian ambitions with a series of international agreements including treaties with Romania (1921), Yugoslavia (1921), France (1924 and 1925) and the Soviet Union (1935).^[81] The 1925 Franco-Czechoslovak Treaty of Mutual Assistance committed France to provide military help to Czechoslovakia in the case of unprovoked German aggression. The 1935 Soviet-Czechoslovak Treaty of Mutual Assistance committed the Soviet Union to also provide military help to Czechoslovakia if the Franco-Czechoslovakia treaty were triggered.^[82]

Demands for Sudeten German autonomy

Czechoslovakia included more than three million ethnic Germans, who made up about 23% of the population. The Germans lived mostly in the mountainous regions of Bohemia and Moravia which bordered on Germany and the newly created country of Austria. These regions came to be called the Sudetenland.^[83]^[84]

The Sudeten Germans had not been consulted on whether they wished to be citizens of Czechoslovakia. Although the constitution guaranteed equality for all citizens, there was a tendency among political leaders to transform the country "into an instrument of Czech and Slovak nationalism."^[85] Some progress was made to integrate the Germans and other minorities, but they continued to be underrepresented in the government and the army. Moreover, the Great Depression, beginning in 1929, disproportionately affected the highly industrialized and export-oriented Sudetenland. By 1936, the region asccounted for 60 percent of unemployed people in Czechoslovakia.^[84]

In 1933, Sudeten German leader Konrad Henlein founded the Sudeten German Party (SdP), which was populist and hostile to the Czechoslovak government. It was heavily subsidized by Nazi Germany and soon captured two-thirds of the vote in districts with a large German population.^[86]^[87] By 1935, the SdP was the largest political party in Czechoslovakia as German votes concentrated on this party, and Czech and Slovak votes were spread among several parties.^[88]

Shortly after Germany's annexation of Austria, Henlein met with Hitler in Berlin on 28 March 1938, and was instructed to make demands unacceptable to the democratic Czechoslovak government, led by President Edvard Beneš. On 24 April, the SdP issued a series of demands known as the Carlsbad Programme which included autonomy for Germans in Czechoslovakia.^[89] The Czechoslovak government responded by saying that it was willing to provide more rights to the German minority but would not grant autonomy.^[86]

The SdP gained 88% of the ethnic German votes in May 1938.^[90] [move to appropriate place].

With tension high between the Germans and the Czechoslovak government, Beneš, on 15 September 1938, secretly offered to give 6,000 square kilometres (2,300 sq mi) of Czechoslovakia to Germany, in exchange for a German agreement to admit 1.5 to 2.0 million Sudeten Germans expelled by Czechoslovakia. Hitler did not reply.^[91] [Move.]

Sudeten crisis

As the previous appeasement of Hitler had shown, France and Britain were intent on avoiding war. The French government did not wish to face Germany alone and took its lead from British Conservative government of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain. He considered the Sudeten German grievances justified and believed Hitler's intentions to be limited. Both Britain and France, therefore, advised Czechoslovakia to accede to Henlein's demands. Beneš resisted and, on 19 May, initiated a partial mobilization in response to German troop movements on the border.^[92]

On 20 May, Hitler presented his generals with a draft plan of attack on Czechoslovakia that was codenamed Operation Green.^[93] He insisted that he would not "smash Czechoslovakia" militarily without "provocation", "a particularly favourable opportunity" or "adequate political justification."^[94] Ten days later, Hitler signed a directive for war against Czechoslovakia to begin no later than 1 October.^[95]

On 22 May, Juliusz Łukasiewicz, the Polish ambassador to France, told French Foreign Minister Georges Bonnet that if France moved against Germany to defend Czechoslovakia, "We shall not move." Łukasiewicz also told Bonnet that Poland would oppose any attempt by Soviet forces to defend Czechoslovakia from Germany. Édouard Daladier told Jakob Surits [ru; de], the Soviet ambassador to France, "Not only can we not count on Polish support but we have no faith that Poland will not strike us in the back."^[96] However, the Polish government indicated multiple times (in March 1936 and May, June and August 1938) that it was prepared to fight Germany if the French decided to help Czechoslovakia: "Beck's proposal to Bonnet, his statements to Ambassador Drexel Biddle, and the statement noted by Vansittart, show that the Polish foreign minister was, indeed, prepared to carry out a radical change of policy if the Western powers decided on war with Germany. However, these proposals and statements did not elicit any reaction from British and French governments that were bent on averting war by appeasing Germany."^[97] [Tangential. Summarise or move]

In the meantime, the British government demanded that Beneš request a mediator. Not wishing to sever his government's ties with Western Europe, Beneš reluctantly accepted. The British appointed Lord Runciman, a former Liberal cabinet minister, who arrived in Prague on 3 August with instructions to persuade Beneš to agree to a plan acceptable to the Sudeten Germans.^[98] On 20 July, Bonnet told the Czechoslovak ambassador in Paris that while France would declare its support in public to help the Czechoslovak negotiations, it was not prepared to go to war over Sudetenland.^[98] In August, the German press was full of stories alleging Czechoslovak atrocities against Sudeten Germans, with the intention of forcing the West into putting pressure on the Czechoslovaks to make concessions.^[99] Hitler hoped that the Czechoslovaks would refuse and that the West would then feel morally justified in leaving the Czechoslovaks to their fate.^[100] In August, Germany sent 750,000 soldiers along the border of Czechoslovakia, officially as part of army maneuvres.^[86]^[100] On 4 or 5 September,^[98] Beneš submitted the Fourth Plan, granting nearly all the demands of the agreement. The Sudeten Germans were under instruction from Hitler to avoid a compromise,^[100] and the SdP held demonstrations that provoked a police action in Ostrava on 7 September, in which two of their parliamentary deputies were arrested.^[98] The Sudeten Germans used the incident and false allegations of other atrocities as an excuse to break off further negotiations.^[98]^[101]

On 12 September, Hitler made a speech at a Nazi Party rally in Nuremberg on the Sudeten crisis condemning the actions of the government of Czechoslovakia.^[86] Hitler denounced Czechoslovakia as being a fraudulent state that was in violation of international law's emphasis of national self-determination, claiming it was a Czech hegemony although the Germans, the Slovaks, the Hungarians, the Ukrainians and the Poles of the country actually wanted to be in a union with the Czechs.^[102] Hitler accused Beneš of seeking to gradually exterminate the Sudeten Germans and claimed that since Czechoslovakia's creation, over 600,000 Germans had been intentionally forced out of their homes under the threat of starvation if they did not leave.^[103] He alleged that Beneš's government was persecuting Germans along with Hungarians, Poles, and Slovaks and accused Beneš of threatening the nationalities with being branded traitors if they were not loyal to the country.^[102] He stated that he, as the head of state of Germany, would support the right of the self-determination of fellow Germans in the Sudetenland.^[102] He condemned Beneš for his government's recent execution of several German protesters.^[102] He accused Beneš of being belligerent and threatening behaviour towards Germany which, if war broke out, would result in Beneš forcing Sudeten Germans to fight against their will against Germans from Germany.^[102] Hitler accused the government of Czechoslovakia of being a client regime of France, claiming that the French Minister of Aviation Pierre Cot had said, "We need this state as a base from which to drop bombs with greater ease to destroy Germany's economy and its industry."^[103]

On 28 May, Hitler called a meeting of his service chiefs, ordered an acceleration of U-boat construction and brought forward the construction of his new battleships, Bismarck and Tirpitz, to spring 1940. He demanded that the increase in the firepower of the battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau be accelerated.^[95] While recognizing that this would still be insufficient for a full-scale naval war with Britain, Hitler hoped it would be a sufficient deterrent.^[104] [Remove. Tangential to Sudeten crisis.]

Hitler's adjutant, Fritz Wiedemann, recalled after the war that he was "very shocked" by Hitler's new plans to attack Britain and France three to four years after "deal[ing] with the situation" in Czechoslovakia.^[105] General Ludwig Beck, chief of the German general staff, noted that Hitler's change of heart in favour of quick action was because Czechoslovak defences were still being improvised, which would no longer be the case two to three years later, and British rearmament would not come into effect until 1941 or 1942.^[104] General Alfred Jodl noted in his diary that the partial Czechoslovak mobilization of 21 May had led Hitler to issue a new order for Operation Green on 30 May and that it was accompanied by a covering letter from Wilhelm Keitel that stated that the plan must be implemented by 1 October at the very latest.^[104] [Removed. Repeated information. Tangential.]

Sources

Heimann, Mary (2011). Czechoslovakia: the State that Failed. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300141474.

Gadigal

The colonisation of the land by British settlers and the subsequent introduction of infectious diseases including smallpox decimated the Gadigal people and their neighbours. The 1789 smallpox epidemic was estimated to have killed about 50% of the Eora population, with only three Gadigal survivors.^[106]^[107]^[108]^[a] However, archaeological evidence suggests that some Gadigal people may have escaped to the Concord area and settled there.^[110]

Black War

Hello there.^[111]

Sources

Add:

Bowern, Claire, ed. (2013). The Oxford Guide to Australian Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198824978.

Ford, Roger; Blake, Thom (1998). Indigenous Peoples in Southeast Queensland: an annotated guide to ethno-historical sources. Woolloonbabba, Qld: The Foundation for Aboriginal and Islander Research Action. ISBN 1876487003.

Jefferies, Anthony (2013). "Leichhardt: His contribution to Australian Aboriginal linguistics and ethnography 1843-44". Memoirs of the Queensland Museum – Culture 7(2): 633-652. Brisbane. ISSN 1440-4788. 7 (2): 634–652. ISSN 1440-4788.

Turrbal people

Lead

The Turrbal are an Aboriginal Australian people from the area now known as Brisbane. The boundaries of their traditional territory are unclear and linguists are divided over whether they spoke a separate language^[112] or a dialect of the Yuggera language.^[113] The Turrbal/Yuggera word for the central Brisbane area is Meanjin^[114] (sometimes spelt Meeanjin or Mianjin).

Country

The Turrbal people's traditional lands lay around the Brisbane River. Tom Petrie stated that their traditional land coincided with the territorial range of their language.^[115] Ford and Blake, however, state that the Turrbal and Jagera were distinct peoples, the Jagera generally living south of the Brisbane river and the Turrbal mostly living north.^[116] Neighbouring Aboriginal peoples include the Gubbi Gubbi and Wakka Wakka to the north, the Dalla to the northwest and the Quandamooka of Moreton Bay.^[117]

At the time of European settlement, the Turrbul people comprised local groups each of which had a "head man" and a specific territory.^[118] The European names for the locality groups, sometimes called clans, of the Brisbane area include the Duke of York's clan, the North Pine (or Petrie), the Coorpooroo, Chepara, Yerongpan and others.^[119]^[120]

Despite collective title to a stretch of land, the Turrbal permitted private ownership of specific sections of land. Petrie states:

Though the land belonged to the whole tribe, the head men often spoke of it as theirs. The tribe in general owned the animals and birds on the ground, also roots and nests, but certain men and women owned different fruit or flower-trees and shrubs. For instance, a man could own a bonyi (Araucaria bidwilli) tree, and a woman a minti (Banksia amula), dulandella (Persoonia Sp.), midyim (Myrtus tenuifolia), or dakkabin (Xanthorrhoea aborea) tree. Then a man sometimes owned a portion of the river which was a good fishing spot, and no one else could fish there without his permission.^[121]

Sources

Bowern, Claire, ed. (2013). The Oxford Guide to Australian Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198824978.

Ford, Roger; Blake, Thom (1998). Indigenous Peoples in Southeast Queensland: an annotated guide to ethno-historical sources. Woolloonbabba, Qld: The Foundation for Aboriginal and Islander Research Action. ISBN 1876487003.

Sandy on behalf of the Yugara People v State of Queensland (No 2) [2015] FCA 15 (27 January 2015), Federal Court (Australia)

Dixon, Robert M. W. (2002). Australian Languages: Their Nature and Development. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47378-1.

Sources

Dixon, R. M. W. (2002). Australian Languages: Their Nature and Development. Cambridge University Press. [Access thru SLQ online]

Sandy on behalf of the Yugara People v State of Queensland (No 2) [2015] FCA 15 (27 January 2015), Federal Court (Australia) [Own copy]

Petrie, Constance Campbell; Petrie, Tom (1904). Tom Petrie's reminiscences of early Queensland (dating from 1837). Cornell University Library. Brisbane: Watson, Ferguson & co. – via Internet Archive.

Steele, John Gladstone (2015). Aboriginal Pathways: in Southeast Queensland and the Richmond River. University of Queensland Press. ISBN 978-0-702-25742-1. [Access tru Internet Archive]

Tindale, Norman Barnett (1974). "Jagara (QLD)". Aboriginal Tribes of Australia: Their Terrain, Environmental Controls, Distribution, Limits, and Proper Names. Australian National University Press. [Copy on PC]

Watson, F. J. (1944). "Vocabularies of four representative tribes of South Eastern Queensland: with grammatical notes thereof and some notes on manners and customs, also, a list of Aboriginal place names and their derivations". Journal of The Royal Geographical Society of Australasia. 48 (34). Brisbane. OCLC 682056722. [Access thru Trove and SQL online]]

Bowern, Claire, ed. (2013). The Oxford Guide to Australian Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198824978.

Ford, Roger; Blake, Thom (1998). Indigenous Peoples in Southeast Queensland: an annotated guide to ethno-historical sources. Woolloonbabba, Qld: The Foundation for Aboriginal and Islander Research Action. ISBN 1876487003.

Jefferies, Anthony. "Leichhardt: His contribution to Australian Aboriginal linguistics and ethnography 1843-44". Memoirs of the Queensland Museum – Culture 7(2): 633-652. Brisbane. ISSN 1440-4788. 7 (2): 604. ISSN 1440-4788.

Genocide in Australia

The earliest evidence of humans in Australia has been variously estimated, with most scholars, as of 2023, dating it between 50,000 and 65,000 years BP.^[70]^[75]^[76]^[77]

Historical context

When Britain established its first Australian colony in 1788, the Aboriginal population is estimated to have been 300,000 to one million people^[122]^[123]^[10] whose ancestors had inhabited the land for 50,000 to 65,000 years.^[70]^[75]^[76]^[77] They were complex hunter-gatherers with diverse economies and societies. There were about 600 tribes or nations and 250 languages with various dialects.^[11]^[124] In the 150 years that followed, the number of Indigenous Australians fell sharply due to introduced diseases and violent conflict with the colonists.^[122]

When the Australian colonies federated in 1901 and the Commonwealth of Australia was established, the Aboriginal population had fallen to just over 90,000 people.^[122] Government policies regarding Indigenous peoples varied from state to state. Many Indigenous Australians were confined to reserves and missions .

The Torres Strait Islander people first settled their islands around 4,000 years ago. Culturally and linguistically distinct from mainland Aboriginal peoples, they were seafarers and obtained their livelihood from seasonal horticulture and the resources of their reefs and seas. Agriculture also developed on some islands. Villages had appeared in their areas by the 14th century.^[125]^[126]

The British Empire established a penal colony at Botany Bay in 1788. In the 150 years that followed, the number of Indigenous Australians fell sharply due to introduced diseases and violent conflict with the colonists.

The colonisation of Australia by the British, starting in 1788, marked the beginning of a catastrophic impact on the Indigenous populations, who had lived continuously on the continent for over 80,000 years prior to European settlement.^[57]^[58]^[59] Some of the catastrophic impacts upon the indigenous population came about somewhat inadvertently (e.g. those caused by disease introduction, or agricultural displacement^[60]). However, other impacts upon the population were more deliberate, and would fairly be described by modern scholars as historical acts of genocide.^[61]

Following federation Aboriginal affairs was a state responsibility, although the Commonwealth became responsible for the Aboriginal population of the Northern Territory from 1911. By that date the Commonwealth and all states except Tasmania had passed legislation establishing Protectors of Aborigines and Protection Boards with extensive powers to regulate the lives of Aboriginal Australians including their ownership of property, place of residence, employment, sexual relationships and custody of their children. Reserves were established, ostensibly for the protection of the Aboriginal population who had been dispossessed of their land. Church groups also ran missions throughout Australia providing shelter, food, religious instruction and elementary schooling for Indigenous people.^[127]

Some officials were concerned by the growing number of Aboriginal children of mixed heritage, particularly in northern Australia where large Indigenous, South Sea Islander and Asian populations were seen as inconsistent with the white Australia policy. Laws concerning Aboriginal Australians were progressively tightened to make it easier for officials to remove Aboriginal children of mixed descent from their parents and place them in reserves, missions, institutions and employment with white employers.^[128]