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Legacy

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Children and successors

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Illustration of a coin of the Numidian ruler Juba II, king of Mauretania, on the obverse, with Cleopatra Selene II on the reverse.

After her suicide, Cleopatra's three surviving children Cleopatra Selene II, Alexander Helios, and Ptolemy Philadelphos were sent to Rome with Octavian's sister Octavia, a former wife of their father, as their guardian.[1][2] Cleopatra Selene II and Alexander Helios were present in the Roman triumph of Octavian in 29 BC.[1][3] The fates of Alexander Helios and Ptolemy Philadelphus are unknown after this point.[1][3] Octavia arranged the betrothal of their sister Cleopatra Selene II to Juba II, son of Juba I whose North African kingdom of Numidia had been turned into a Roman province in 46 BC by Julius Caesar due to Juba I's support of Pompey.[4][2][5] The emperor Augustus installed Juba II and Cleopatra Selene II, after their wedding in 25 BC, as the new rulers of Mauretania, where they transformed the old Carthaginian city of Iol into their new capital, renamed Caesarea Mauretaniae (modern Cherchell, Algeria).[4][3] Cleopatra Selene II imported many important scholars, artists, and advisers from her mother's royal court in Alexandria to serve her in Caesarea, now permeated in Hellenistic Greek culture.[6] She also named her son Ptolemy of Mauretania, in honor of their Ptolemaic dynastic heritage.[7][8]

Cleopatra Selene II died around 5 BC and when Juba II died in 23/24 AD he was succeeded by his son Ptolemy.[7][9] However, Ptolemy was eventually executed by the Roman emperor Caligula in 40 AD, perhaps under the pretense that Ptolemy had unlawfully minted his own royal coinage and utilized regalia reserved for the Roman emperor.[10][11] Ptolemy of Mauretania was the last known monarch of the Ptolemaic dynasty, although Queen Zenobia of the short-lived Palmyrene Empire during the Crisis of the Third Century would claim descent from Cleopatra.[12][13] A cult dedicated to Cleopatra still existed as late as 373 AD when Petesenufe, an Egyptian scribe of the book of Isis, explained that he "overlaid the figure of Cleopatra with gold."[14]

Roman literature and historiography

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Further information: Roman historiography, Greek historiography, Latin literature, and Latin poetry
Cleopatra Testing Poisons on Condemned Prisoners by Alexandre Cabanel (1887)[15]

Although almost fifty ancient works of Roman historiography mention Cleopatra, these often include only terse accounts of the Battle of Actium, her suicide, and Augustan propaganda about her personal deficiencies.[16] Although not a biography of Cleopatra, the Life of Antonius written by Plutarch in the 1st century AD provides the most thorough surviving account of Cleopatra's life.[17][18][19] Plutarch lived a century after Cleopatra but relied on primary sources such as Philotas of Amphissa, who had access to the Ptolemaic royal palace, Cleopatra's personal physician named Olympos, and Quintus Dellius, a close confidant of Antony and Cleopatra.[20] Plutarch's work included both the Augustan view of Cleopatra—that became historical canon in his day—as well as sources outside of this tradition, such as eyewitness reports.[17][19] The Jewish Roman historian Josephus, writing in the 1st century AD, provides valuable information on the life of Cleopatra via her diplomatic relationship with Herod the Great.[21][22] However, this work relies largely on Herod's memoirs and the biased account of Nicolaus of Damascus, the tutor of Cleopatra's children in Alexandria before he moved to Judea to serve as an adviser and chronicler at Herod's court.[21][22] The Roman History published by the official and historian Cassius Dio in the early 3rd century AD, while failing to fully comprehend the complexities of the late Hellenistic world, nevertheless provides a continuous history of the era of Cleopatra's reign.[21]

A (restructured) Roman statue of Cleopatra VII wearing a diadem and 'melon' hairstyle similar to coinage portraits, marble, found near the Tomba di Nerone, Rome along the Via Cassia, Museo Pio-Clementino[23][24][25]

Cleopatra is barely mentioned in the De Bello Alexandrino, the memoirs of an unknown staff officer who served under Julius Caesar.[26][27][28][note 1] The writings of Cicero, who knew her personally, provide an unflattering portrait of Cleopatra.[26] The Augustan-period authors Vergil, Horace, Propertius, and Ovid perpetuated the negative views of Cleopatra approved by the ruling Roman regime,[26][29] although Vergil established the idea of Cleopatra as a figure of romance and epic melodrama.[30] Horace also viewed Cleopatra's suicide as a positive choice,[31][29] an idea that found acceptance by the Late Middle Ages with Geoffrey Chaucer.[32][33] The historians Strabo, Velleius, Valerius Maximus, Pliny the Elder, and Appian, while not offering accounts as full as Plutarch, Josephus, or Cassius Dio, provided some details of her life that had not survived in other historical records.[26][note 2] Inscriptions on contemporary Ptolemaic coinage and some Egyptian papyrus documents demonstrate Cleopatra's point of view, but this material is very limited in comparison to Roman literary works.[26][34][note 3] The fragmentary Libyka commissioned by Cleopatra's son-in-law Juba II provides a glimpse at a possible body of historiographic material that supported Cleopatra's perspective.[26]

Cleopatra's gender has perhaps led to her depiction as a minor if not insignificant figure in ancient, medieval, and even modern historiography about ancient Egypt and the Greco-Roman world.[35] For instance, the historian Ronald Syme (1903–1989) asserted that she was of little importance to Julius Caesar and that the propaganda of Octavian magnified her importance to an excessive degree.[35] Although the common view of Cleopatra was one of a prolific seductress, she had only two known sexual partners, Julius Caesar and Mark Antony, the two most prominent Romans of the time period who were most likely to ensure the survival of her dynasty.[36][37] Plutarch described Cleopatra as having had a stronger personality and charming wit than physical beauty.[38][39][40][note 4]

Cultural depictions

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Further information: List of cultural depictions of Cleopatra

Depictions in ancient art

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Further information: Hellenistic art, Art of ancient Egypt, and Death of Cleopatra § Depictions in art and literature
Statues
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Further information: Roman portraiture, Roman sculpture, Esquiline Venus, and Sleeping Ariadne
Left image: an Egyptian statue of either Arsinoe II or Cleopatra VII as an Egyptian goddess in black basalt, second half of the 1st century BC;[41] Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg
Right image: the Esquiline Venus, a Roman or Hellenistic-Egyptian statue of Venus (Aphrodite), which may be a depiction of Cleopatra VII,[42] Capitoline Museums, Rome

Cleopatra was depicted in various ancient works of art, in the Egyptian as well as Hellenistic-Greek and Roman styles.[43] Surviving works include statues, busts, reliefs, and minted coins,[43][15] as well as an ancient carved cameos,[44] such as one depicting Cleopatra and Mark Antony in Hellenistic style, now in the Altes Museum, Berlin.[23] Contemporary images of Cleopatra were produced both in and outside of Ptolemaic Egypt. For instance, a large gilded bronze statue of Cleopatra once existed inside the Temple of Venus Genetrix in Rome, the first time that a living person had their statue placed next to that of a deity in a Roman temple.[45][46][47] It was erected there by Julius Caesar and remained in the temple at least until the 3rd century AD, its preservation perhaps owing to Caesar's patronage, although Augustus did not remove or destroy artworks in Alexandria depicting Cleopatra.[48][49] In regards to surviving Roman statuary, a life-sized Roman-style statue of Cleopatra was found near the Tomba di Nerone, Rome along the Via Cassia and is now housed in the Museo Pio-Clementino, Vatican Museums.[23][24][25] Plutarch, in his Life of Antonius, claimed that the public statues of Mark Antony were torn down by Augustus, but those of Cleopatra were preserved following her death thanks to her friend Archibius paying the emperor 2,000 talents to dissuade him from destroying hers.[50][14][51]

Since the 1950s scholars have debated whether or not the Esquiline Venus—discovered in 1874 on the Esquiline Hill in Rome and housed in the Palazzo dei Conservatori of the Capitoline Museums—is a depiction of Cleopatra, based on the statue's hairstyle and facial features, apparent royal diadem worn over the head, and the uraeus Egyptian cobra wrapped around the base.[42][52] Detractors of this theory argue that the facial features on the Berlin bust and coinage of Cleopatra differ and assert that it was unlikely she would be depicted as the naked goddess Venus (i.e. the Greek Aphrodite).[42][52] However, she was depicted in an Egyptian statue as the goddess Isis.[53] The Esquiline Venus is generally thought to be a mid-1st-century AD Roman copy of a 1st-century BC Greek original from the school of Pasiteles.[52]

Coinage portraits
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Further information: Ptolemaic coinage, Roman currency, and Ancient Greek coinage
Cleopatra and Mark Antony on the obverse and reverse, respectively, of a silver tetradrachm struck at the Antioch mint in 36 BC

Surviving coinage of Cleopatra's reign include specimens from every regnal year, from 51 to 30 BC.[54] Cleopatra, the only Ptolemaic queen to issue coins on her own behalf, almost certainly inspired her partner Caesar to become the first living Roman to present his portrait on his own coins.[55][note 5] Cleopatra was also the first foreign queen to have her image appear on Roman currency.[56] Coins dated to the period of her marriage to Mark Antony, which also bear his image, portray the queen as having a very similar aquiline nose and prominent chin as that of her husband.[45][57] These similar facial features followed an artistic convention that represented the mutually-observed harmony of a royal couple.[45][43] Her strong, almost masculine facial features in these particular coins are strikingly different from the smoother, softer, and perhaps idealized sculpted images of her in either the Egyptian or Hellenistic styles.[43][58][59] Her masculine facial features on minted currency are similar to that of her father Ptolemy XII Auletes,[60][61] and perhaps also to those of her Ptolemaic ancestor Arsinoe II (316 – 260 BC)[43][62] and even depictions of earlier queens such as Hatshepsut and Nefertiti.[59]

It is likely, due to political expediency, that Antony's visage was made to conform not only to hers but also to those of her Macedonian Greek ancestors who founded the Ptolemaic dynasty, to familiarize himself to her subjects as a legitimate member of the royal house.[43] The inscriptions on the coins are written in Greek, but also in the nominative case of Roman coins rather than the genitive case of Greek coins, in addition to having the letters placed in a circular fashion along the edges of the coin instead of across it horizontally or vertically as was customary for Greek ones.[43] These facets of their coinage represent the synthesis of Roman and Hellenistic culture, and perhaps also a statement to their subjects, however ambiguous to modern scholars, about the superiority of either Antony or Cleopatra over the other.[43] Diana E. E. Kleiner argues that Cleopatra, in one of her coins minted with the dual image of her husband Antony, made herself more masculine looking than other portraits and more like an acceptable Roman client queen than a Hellenistic ruler.[58] Cleopatra had actually achieved this masculine look in coinage predating her affair with Antony, such as the coins struck at the Ashkelon mint during her brief period of exile to Syria and the Levant, which Joann Fletcher explains as her attempt to appear like her father and as a legitimate successor to a male Ptolemaic ruler.[61][63]

Various coins, such as a silver tetradrachm minted sometime after Cleopatra's marriage with Antony in 37 BC, depict her wearing a royal diadem and a 'melon' hairstyle.[45][63] The combination of this hairstyle with a diadem are also featured in two surviving sculpted marble busts.[64][15][65][note 6] This hairstyle, with hair braided back into a bun, is the same as that worn by her Ptolemaic ancestors Arsinoe II and Berenice II (266 – 221 BC) in their own coinage.[45][66] After her visit to Rome in 46–44 BC it became fashionable for Roman women to adopt this elaborate hairstyle, but it was abandoned for a more modest, austere look during the conservative rule of Augustus.[45][64][65]

Greco-Roman busts
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An ancient Roman bust, c. 50–30 BC, depicting a woman from Ptolemaic Egypt, either Queen Cleopatra VII or a member of her entourage during her 46–44 BC visit to Rome with her lover Julius Caesar; British Museum, London[64]

Of the surviving Greco-Roman-style busts of Cleopatra, the sculpture known as the 'Berlin Cleopatra', located in the Antikensammlung Berlin collection of the Altes Museum, possesses her full nose, whereas the bust known as the 'Vatican Cleopatra', located in the Vatican Museums, is damaged with a missing nose.[67][68][69][note 7] Both the Berlin Cleopatra and Vatican Cleopatra have royal diadems, similar facial features, and perhaps once resembled the face of her bronze statue housed in the Temple of Venus Genetrix.[68][70][69][note 8] Both busts are dated to the mid-1st century BC and were found in Roman villas along the Via Appia in Italy, the Vatican Cleopatra having been unearthed in the Villa of the Quintilii.[45][67][69][note 9] Francisco Pina Polo writes that Cleopatra's coinage present her image with certainty and asserts that the sculpted portrait of the Berlin bust is confirmed as having a similar profile with her hair pulled back into a bun, a diadem, and a hooked nose.[71] A third sculpted portrait of Cleopatra accepted by scholars as being authentic survives at the Archaeological Museum of Cherchel, Algeria.[49][64][72] This portrait features the royal diadem and similar facial features as the Berlin and Vatican busts, but has a more unique hairstyle and may even depict Cleopatra Selene II, daughter of Cleopatra VII.[72] Another Parian-marble Roman bust of Cleopatra, wearing a vulture headdress in Egyptian style, is located at the Capitoline Museums.[73]

Other possible but disputed busts of Cleopatra include one in the British Museum, London, made of limestone, which perhaps only depicts a woman in her entourage during her trip to Rome.[23][64] The woman in this bust has facial features similar to other portraits (including the pronounced aquiline nose), but lacks a royal diadem and sports a different hairstyle.[23][64] However, the British Museum bust could potentially represent Cleopatra at a different stage in her life and may also betray an effort by Cleopatra to discard the use of royal insignia (i.e. the diadem) to make herself more appealing to the citizens of Republican Rome.[64] Duane W. Roller speculates that the British Museum bust, along with those in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, the Capitoline Museums, Rome, and in the private collection of Maurice Nahmen (1868–1948), while having similar facial features and hairstyles as the Berlin bust but lacking a royal diadem, most likely represent members of the royal court or even Roman women imitating Cleopatra's popular hairstyle.[74]

Paintings
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A Roman Second-style painting in the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii, Italy, depicting Cleopatra VII as Venus Genetrix and her son Caesarion as a cupid, mid-1st century BC[52][75]

In the House of Marcus Fabius Rufus at Pompeii, Italy a mid-1st century BC Second-Style wall painting of the goddess Venus holding a cupid near massive temple doors is most likely a depiction of Cleopatra VII as Venus Genetrix with her son Caesarion.[52][75] The commission of the painting most likely coincides with the erection of the Temple of Venus Genetrix in the Forum of Caesar in September 46 BC, where Julius Caesar had a gilded statue erected depicting Cleopatra.[52][75] This statue likely formed the basis of her depictions in both sculpted art as well as this painting at Pompeii.[52][76] The woman in the painting wears a royal diadem over her head and is strikingly similar in appearance to the Vatican Cleopatra bust, which bears possible marks on the marble of its left cheek where a cupid's arm may have been torn off.[52][77][69][note 10] The room with the painting was walled off by its owner, perhaps in reaction to the execution of Caesarion in 30 BC by order of Octavian, when public depictions of Cleopatra's son would have been unfavorable with the new Roman regime.[52][78] Behind her golden diadem crowned with a red jewel is a translucent veil with crinkles that suggest the 'melon' hairstyle favored by the queen.[77][note 11] Her ivory-white skin, round face, long aquiline nose, and large round eyes were features common in both Roman and Ptolemaic depictions of deities.[77] Roller affirms that "there seems little doubt that this is a depiction of Cleopatra and Caesarion before the doors of the Temple of Venus in the Forum Julium and, as such, it becomes the only extant contemporary painting of the queen."[52]

A steel engraving published by John Sartain in 1885 depicting the now lost painted death portrait of Cleopatra VII (left), an encaustic painting discovered in the ancient Roman ruins of the Egyptian Temple of Serapis at Hadrian's Villa (in Tivoli, Lazio) in 1818;[79] she is seen here wearing the knotted garment of Isis (corresponding with Plutarch's description of her wearing the robes of Isis),[80] as well as the radiant crown of the Ptolemaic rulers such as Ptolemy V (pictured to the right in a golden octodrachm minted in 204–203 BC).[81]

Another painting from Pompeii, dated to the early 1st century AD and located in the House of Giuseppe II, contains a possible depiction of Cleopatra VII with her son Caesarion, both wearing royal diadems while she reclines and consumes poison in an act of suicide.[82] The painting was originally thought to depict the Carthaginian noblewoman Sophonisba, who towards the end of the Second Punic War (218–201 BC) drank poison and committed suicide at the behest of her lover Masinissa, King of Numidia.[82] Arguments in favor of it depicting Cleopatra include the strong connection of her house with that of the Numidian royal family, Masinissa and Ptolemy VIII having been associates and Cleopatra's own daughter marrying the Numidian prince Juba II.[82] Sophonisba was also a more obscure figure when this painting was made, while Cleopatra's suicide was far more famous.[82] An asp is absent from the painting, but many Romans held the view that she received poison in another manner than a venomous snakebite.[83] A set of double doors on the rear wall of the painting, positioned very high above the people in it, suggests the described layout of Cleopatra's tomb in Alexandria.[82] A male servant holds the mouth of an artificial Egyptian crocodile (possibly an elaborate tray handle), while another man standing by is dressed as a Roman.[82]

In 1818 a now lost encaustic painting was discovered in the Temple of Serapis at Hadrian's Villa near Tivoli, Lazio, Italy that depicted Cleopatra committing suicide with an asp biting her bare chest.[79] A chemical analysis performed in 1822 confirmed that the medium for the painting was composed of one-third wax and two-thirds resin.[79] The thickness of the painting over Cleopatra's bare flesh and her drapery were reportedly similar to the paintings of the Fayum mummy portraits.[84] A steel engraving published by John Sartain in 1885 depicting the painting as described in the archaeological report shows Cleopatra wearing authentic clothing and jewelry of Egypt in the late Hellenistic period,[85] as well as the radiant crown of the Ptolemaic rulers, as seen in their portraits on various coins minted during their respective reigns.[81] After Cleopatra's suicide, Octavian commissioned a painting to be made depicting her being bitten by a snake, parading this image in her stead during his triumphal procession in Rome.[84][86][87] The portrait painting of Cleopatra's death was ostensibly taken from Rome along with the bulk of artworks and treasures used by Emperor Hadrian to decorate his private villa, where it was found in an Egyptian temple.[79][note 12]

Portland Vase
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Further information: Portland Vase
Possible depiction of Mark Antony being lured by Cleopatra VII, straddling a serpent, while Anton looks on and Eros flies above[88]

The Portland Vase, a Roman cameo glass vase dated to the Augustan period and located in the British Museum, includes a possible depiction of Cleopatra with Mark Antony.[88][89] In this interpretation, Cleopatra can be seen grasping Antony and drawing him towards her while a serpent (i.e. the asp) rises between her legs, Eros floats above, and Anton, the alleged ancestor of Antonian family, looks on in despair as his descendant Antony is led to his doom.[88] The other side of the vase perhaps contains a scene of Octavia Minor, abandoned by her husband Antony but watched over by her brother, the emperor Augustus.[88] The vase would thus have been created no earlier than 35 BC, when Antony sent his wife Octavia back to Italy and stayed with Cleopatra in Alexandria.[88]

Native Egyptian art
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Further information: Portraiture in ancient Egypt and Reign of Cleopatra VII § Egypt under the monarchy of Cleopatra
Cleopatra VII and her son Caesarion at the Temple of Dendera

The Bust of Cleopatra in the Royal Ontario Museum represents a bust of Cleopatra in the Egyptian style.[90] Dated to the mid-1st century BC, it is perhaps the earliest depiction of Cleopatra as both a goddess and ruling pharaoh of Egypt.[90] This sculpture also has pronounced eyes that share similarities with Roman copies of Ptolemaic sculpted works of art.[91] The Dendera Temple complex near Dendera, Egypt, contains Egyptian-style carved relief images along the exterior walls of the Temple of Hathor depicting Cleopatra and her young son Caesarion as a grown adult and ruling pharaoh making offerings to the gods.[92][93] Augustus had his name inscribed there following the death of Cleopatra.[92][94] A large Ptolemaic black basalt statue measuring 41 in (1.04 m) in height, located now at the Hermitage Museum of Saint Petersburg, Russia, is thought to represent Arsinoe II, wife of Ptolemy II, but recent analysis has indicated that it could depict her descendant Cleopatra VII due to the three uraei adorning her headdress, an increase from the two used by Arsinoe II to symbolize her rule over Lower and Upper Egypt.[50][44][41] The woman in the basalt statue also holds a divided, double cornucopia (dikeras), which can be seen on coins of both Arsinoe II and Cleopatra VII.[50][41] In his Kleopatra und die Caesaren (2006), Bernard Andreae [de] contends that this basalt statue, like other idealized Egyptian portraits of the queen, does not contain realistic facial features and hence adds little to the knowledge of her appearance.[95] Adrian Goldsworthy writes that, despite these representations in native Egyptian art, Cleopatra would have only dressed as a native "perhaps for certain rites" and instead would usually dress as a Greek monarch, which would include the Greek headband seen in her Greco-Roman busts.[96]

Medieval and Early Modern reception

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Further information: Medieval art, Medieval literature, Renaissance art, Renaissance literature, and Early Modern literature
The Banquet of Cleopatra, by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, 1744, National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne[97]

In modern times Cleopatra has become an icon of popular culture,[15] a reputation shaped by theatrical dramas dating back to the Renaissance as well as visual arts, such as paintings and films.[98] This material largely surpasses the scope and size of existent historiographic literature about her from Classical Antiquity and has made a greater impact on the general public's view of Cleopatra than the latter.[99] The 14th-century English poet Chaucer, in The Legend of Good Women, contextualized Cleopatra for the Christian world of the Middle Ages.[100] His depiction of Cleopatra and Antony, her shining knight engaged in courtly love, has been interpreted in modern times as being either playful or misogynyistic satire.[100] However, Chaucer highlighted Cleopatra's relationships with only two men as hardly the life of a seductress and wrote his works partly in reaction to the negative depiction of Cleopatra in De Mulieribus Claris and De Casibus Virorum Illustrium by the 14th-century Italian poet Giovanni Boccaccio.[101][33] The Renaissance humanist Bernardino Cacciante [it], in his 1504 Libretto apologetico delle donne, was the first Italian to defend the reputation of Cleopatra and criticize the perceived moralizing and misogyny in Boccaccio's works.[102] Works of Arabic, Islamic historiography covered the reign of Cleopatra, such as the 10th-century AD Meadows of Gold by Al-Masudi, although his work erroneously claimed that Octavian died soon after Cleopatra's suicide.[103]

In the visual arts, the sculpted depiction of Cleopatra as a free-standing nude figure committing suicide began with the 16th-century sculptors Bartolommeo Bandinelli and Alessandro Vittoria.[104] Early prints depicting Cleopatra include those by the Renaissance artists Raphael and Michelangelo, as well as 15th-century Quattrocento woodcuts in illustrated publications of Boccaccio's works.[105] Cleopatra also appeared in miniatures for illuminated manuscripts, such as a depiction of her and Mark Antony lying in a Gothic-style tomb by the Boucicaut Master in 1409.[32] In the performing arts, the death of Elizabeth I of England in 1603 and 1606 German publication of alleged letters of Cleopatra inspired Samuel Daniel to alter and republish his 1594 play Cleopatra in 1607.[106] This was followed by the playwright William Shakespeare, whose Antony and Cleopatra was first performed in 1608 and provided a salacious view of Cleopatra in stark contrast to England's own Virgin Queen.[107] Cleopatra was also featured in operas, such as George Frideric Handel's 1724 Giulio Cesare in Egitto, which portrayed the love affair of Caesar and Cleopatra.[108]

Modern depictions and brand imaging

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Further information: List of cultural depictions of Cleopatra, History of modern literature, and Egyptomania
Bare-breasted woman on a boat, surrounded by naked and semi-naked people
The Triumph of Cleopatra, by William Etty, 1821, now in the Lady Lever Art Gallery, Port Sunlight

In Victorian Britain, Cleopatra was highly associated with many aspects of ancient Egyptian culture and her image was used to market various household products, including oil lamps, lithographs, postcards and cigarettes.[109] Fictional novels such as H. Rider Haggard's Cleopatra (1889) and Théophile Gautier's One of Cleopatra's Nights (1838) depicted the queen as a sensual and mystic Easterner, while the Egyptologist Georg Ebers' Cleopatra (1894) was more grounded in historical accuracy.[109][110] The French dramatist Victorien Sardou and Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw produced plays about Cleopatra, while burlesque shows such as F. C. Burnand's Antony and Cleopatra offered satirical depictions of the queen connecting her and the environment she lived in with the modern age.[111] Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra was considered canonical by the Victorian era.[112] Its popularity led to the perception that the 1885 painting by Lawrence Alma-Tadema depicted the meeting of Antony and Cleopatra on her pleasure barge in Tarsus, although Alma-Tadema revealed in a private letter that it depicts a subsequent meeting of theirs in Alexandria.[113] In his (unfinished) 1825 short story Egyptian Nights, Alexander Pushkin popularized the largely-ignored claims of 4th-century Roman historian Sextus Aurelius Victor that Cleopatra prostituted herself to men who paid for sex with their lives.[114][115] Cleopatra also became appreciated outside the Western world and Middle East, as the Qing-dynasty Chinese scholar Yan Fu (1854–1921) wrote an extensive biography about her.[116]

Georges Méliès' Robbing Cleopatra's Tomb (French: Cléopâtre), an 1899 French silent horror film, was the first film to depict the character of Cleopatra.[117] Hollywood films of the 20th century were influenced by earlier Victorian media, which helped to shape the character of Cleopatra played by Theda Bara in Cleopatra (1917), Claudette Colbert in Cleopatra (1934), and Elizabeth Taylor in Cleopatra (1963).[118] In addition to her portrayal as a 'vampire' queen, Bara's Cleopatra also incorporated elements of 19th-century Orientalism, such as despotism, mixed with dangerous, overt female sexuality.[119] Colbert's character of Cleopatra served as a glamour model for selling Egytpian-themed products in department stores in the 1930s, which can be linked to director Cecil B. DeMille's filming techniques and emphasis on consumer commodities targeting female moviegoers.[120] In preparation for the film starring Taylor as Cleopatra, women's magazines of the early 1960s advertised how to use makeup, clothes, jewelry, and hairstyles to achieve the 'Egyptian' look similar to the queens Cleopatra and Nefertiti.[121] By the end of the 20th century there were not only forty-three separate films associated with Cleopatra, but also some two hundred plays and novels, forty-five operas, and five ballets.[122]

Written works

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Further information: Ancient Greek literature and Ancient Egyptian literature

Whereas myths about Cleopatra persist in popular media, important aspects of her career go largely unnoticed, such as her command of naval forces, administrative acts, and publications on Ancient Greek medicine.[16] Only fragments exist of the medical and cosmetic writings attributed to Cleopatra, such as those preserved by Galen, including remedies for hair disease, baldness, and dandruff, along with a list of weights and measures for pharmacological purposes.[123][124][125] Aëtius of Amida attributed a recipe for perfumed soap to Cleopatra, while Paul of Aegina preserved alleged instructions of hers for dying and curling hair.[123] The attribution of certain texts to Cleopatra, however, is doubted by Ingrid D. Rowland, who highlights that the "Berenice called Cleopatra" cited by the 3rd or 4th-century female Roman physician Metrodora was likely conflated by medieval scholars as being Cleopatra VII.[126]

Ancestry

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Left: a Hellenistic bust of Ptolemy I, now in the Louvre, Paris
Right: a bust of Seleucus I Nicator, a Roman copy of a Greek original, from the Villa of the Papyri (Herculaneum), now in the National Archaeological Museum, Naples

Cleopatra VII was a member of the Ptolemaic dynasty. She belonged to the Macedonian Greek dynasty of the Ptolemies,[127][128][129][note 13] their European origins traced back to northern Greece.[130] Through her father Ptolemy XII Auletes she was a descendant of two prominent companions of Alexander the Great of Macedon, including the general Ptolemy I, founder of the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, and Seleucus I Nicator, the Macedonian Greek founder of the Seleucid Empire of West Asia.[127][131][132][note 14] While Cleopatra's paternal line can be traced through her father, the identity of her mother is unknown.[133][134][135][note 15] She may have been the daughter of Cleopatra VI Tryphaena (also known as Cleopatra V Tryphaena),[note 16] the cousin-wife[136] or sister-wife of Ptolemy XII.[137][134][138][note 17]

Cleopatra I was the only member of the Ptolemaic dynasty known for certain to have introduced some non-Greek ancestry, being a descendant of Apama, the Sogdian Persian wife of Seleucus I.[139][140][note 18] It is generally believed that the Ptolemies did not intermarry with native Egyptians.[141][142][note 19] Michael Grant asserts there is only one known Egyptian mistress of a Ptolemy and no known Egyptian wife of a Ptolemy, further arguing Cleopatra probably had not a drop of Egyptian blood in her and "would have described herself as Greek."[139][note 20] Stacy Schiff writes that Cleopatra was a Macedonian Greek with some Persian ancestry, arguing that it was rare for the Ptolemies to have an Egyptian mistress.[143][note 21] Roller speculates that Cleopatra could have been the daughter of a half-Macedonian-Greek, half-Egyptian woman belonging to a family of priests dedicated to Ptah (a hypothesis not generally accepted in scholarship about Cleopatra),[note 22] but contends that whatever Cleopatra's ancestry, she valued her Greek Ptolemaic heritage the most.[144][note 23]

Claims that Cleopatra was an illegitimate child never appeared in Roman propaganda against her.[145][146][note 24] Strabo was the only ancient historian who claimed that Ptolemy XII's children born after Berenice IV, including Cleopatra VII, were illegitimate.[145][146][147] Cleopatra V (or VI) was expelled from the court of Ptolemy XII in late 69 BC, a few months after the birth of Cleopatra VII, while Ptolemy XII's three younger children were all born during the absence of his wife.[148] The high degree of inbreeding among the Ptolemies is also illustrated by Cleopatra's immediate ancestry, of which a reconstruction is shown below.[note 25] The family tree given below also lists Cleopatra V, Ptolemy XII's wife, as a daughter of Ptolemy X and Berenice III, which would make her a cousin of her husband Ptolemy XII, but she could have been a daughter of Ptolemy IX, which would have made her a sister-wife of Ptolemy XII instead.[136] The confused accounts in ancient primary sources have also led scholars to number Ptolemy XII's wife as either Cleopatra V or Cleopatra VI, the latter of whom may have actually been a daughter of Ptolemy XII and which some use as an indication that Cleopatra V had died in 69 BC rather than reappearing as a co-ruler with Berenice IV in 58 BC (during Ptolemy XII's exile in Rome).[149][150]

Ptolemy V EpiphanesCleopatra I
Ptolemy VI PhilometorCleopatra II
Ptolemy VIII PhysconCleopatra III
Cleopatra II SelenePtolemy IX LathyrosCleopatra IV
Ptolemy X Alexander IBerenice III
Cleopatra VPtolemy XII Auletes
Cleopatra VII

Sybra

[edit]

Remengesau sources

[edit]

https://cse.google.com/cse?cx=008021793823546679917:qjf4zowrlcs&q=remengesau&oq=remengesau&gs_l=partner-generic.3..0l2.5386.8690.0.8989.10.10.0.0.0.0.108.821.8j2.10.0.gsnos%2Cn%3D13...0.3307j3211229j10..1ac.1.25.partner-generic..1.9.737.C2gxrKGaXZw#gsc.tab=0&gsc.q=remengesau&gsc.page=1

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