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The Witcham Gravel helmet is a Roman auxiliary cavalry helmet from the first century AD. Only the decorative copper alloy casing remains; an iron core originally fit under the casing, but has now corroded away. The cap, neck guard, and cheek guards were originally tinned, giving the appearance of a silver helmet encircled by a gold band. The helmet's distinctive feature is the presence of three hollow bosses, out of an original six, that decorate the exterior. No other Roman helmet is known to have such a feature. They may be a decorative embellishment influenced by Etruscan helmets from the sixth century BC, which had similar, lead-filled bosses, that would have deflected blades. The helmet was discovered during peat digging in the parish of Witcham Gravel, Cambridgeshire, perhaps during the 1870s. It was said to have been found "at a depth of about four feet", although the exact findspot within Witcham Gravel is unknown; at the time, the parish comprised about 389 acres. The helmet was first published in 1877, when, owned by Thomas Maylin Vipan, it was exhibited to the Society of Antiquaries of London. When Vipan died in 1891, the British Museum purchased it from his estate. It remains in the museum's collection, and as of 2021 is on view in Room 49. (Full article...)

The Witcham Gravel helmet is a Roman auxiliary cavalry helmet from the first century AD. Only the decorative copper alloy casing remains; an iron core originally fit under the casing, but has now corroded away. The cap, neck guard, and cheek guards were originally tinned, giving the appearance of a silver helmet encircled by a gold band. The helmet's distinctive feature is the presence of three hollow bosses, out of an original six, that decorate the exterior. No other Roman helmet is known to have such a feature. They may be a decorative embellishment influenced by Etruscan helmets from the sixth century BC, which had similar, lead-filled bosses, that would have deflected blades. The helmet was discovered during peat digging in the parish of Witcham Gravel, Cambridgeshire, perhaps during the 1870s. It was said to have been found "at a depth of about four feet", although the exact findspot within Witcham Gravel is unknown; at the time, the parish comprised about 389 acres. The helmet was first published in 1877, when, owned by Thomas Maylin Vipan, it was exhibited to the Society of Antiquaries of London. When Vipan died in 1891, the British Museum purchased it from his estate. It remains in the museum's collection, and as of 2021 is on view in Room 49. (Full article...)

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The Kalambo structure is a Lower Palaeolithic wooden structure, of which two pieces have been uncovered along with other wooden tools. Discovered at the site of Kalambo Falls, Zambia, it is currently the oldest known wooden structure, determined through luminescence dating to be at least 476,000 years old and predating Homo sapiens. (Full article...)	The Kalambo structure is a Lower Palaeolithic wooden structure, of which two pieces have been uncovered along with other wooden tools. Discovered at the site of Kalambo Falls, Zambia, it is currently the oldest known wooden structure, determined through luminescence dating to be at least 476,000 years old and predating Homo sapiens. (Full article...)

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Martin Rundkvist (born 4 April 1972) is a Swedish archaeologist and associate professor at the University of Łódź in Poland. His research focuses on the Bronze, Iron, and Middle Ages of Scandinavia, including significant excavations in the province of Östergötland. Rundkvist has studied and excavated various sites in Sweden, particularly in the country's south. In 2003 and 2004, he published a three-volume work which doubled as his PhD dissertation, cataloguing the finds from Barshalder, the largest prehistoric cemetery on the Swedish island of Gotland. A subsequent book identified nine possible regional power centres in Östergötland, and attempted to determine where the "Beowulfian mead halls" of the day once stood. Excavating years later at one of these sites, Aska, Rundkvist uncovered the foundations of a large mead hall, and 30 ornate gold figures that might have represented gods or royals. In other works, Rundkvist has excavated a Viking boat grave, and analysed both the placement of deposited artefacts in the landscape and the lifestyles of the Scandinavian élite during the Middle Ages. Rundkvist has worked in archaeology since 1992, including research and lecture posts at the universities of Exeter, Chester, Linnaeus, and Tallinn. He spent two decades as managing editor of Fornvännen, a journal on archaeology and medieval art, and authors the blog Aardvarchaeology, which the James Randi Educational Foundation termed "the most-read archaeology blog on the Internet". Rundkvist served as chair for the Swedish Skeptics' Association for four years, and edited its quarterly magazine Folkvett. (Full article...)

Martin Rundkvist (born 4 April 1972) is a Swedish archaeologist and associate professor at the University of Łódź in Poland. His research focuses on the Bronze, Iron, and Middle Ages of Scandinavia, including significant excavations in the province of Östergötland. Rundkvist has studied and excavated various sites in Sweden, particularly in the country's south. In 2003 and 2004, he published a three-volume work which doubled as his PhD dissertation, cataloguing the finds from Barshalder, the largest prehistoric cemetery on the Swedish island of Gotland. A subsequent book identified nine possible regional power centres in Östergötland, and attempted to determine where the "Beowulfian mead halls" of the day once stood. Excavating years later at one of these sites, Aska, Rundkvist uncovered the foundations of a large mead hall, and 30 ornate gold figures that might have represented gods or royals. In other works, Rundkvist has excavated a Viking boat grave, and analysed both the placement of deposited artefacts in the landscape and the lifestyles of the Scandinavian élite during the Middle Ages. Rundkvist has worked in archaeology since 1992, including research and lecture posts at the universities of Exeter, Chester, Linnaeus, and Tallinn. He spent two decades as managing editor of Fornvännen, a journal on archaeology and medieval art, and authors the blog Aardvarchaeology, which the James Randi Educational Foundation termed "the most-read archaeology blog on the Internet". Rundkvist served as chair for the Swedish Skeptics' Association for four years, and edited its quarterly magazine Folkvett. (Full article...)

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Under the Köppen–Geiger classification, Sydney has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) with "warm, sometimes hot" summers and "generally mild", to "cool" winters. The El Niño–Southern Oscillation, the Indian Ocean Dipole and the Southern Annular Mode play an important role in determining Sydney's weather patterns: drought and bushfire on the one hand, and storms and flooding on the other, associated with the opposite phases of the oscillation in Australia. The weather is moderated by proximity to the ocean, and more extreme temperatures are recorded in the inland western suburbs. At Sydney's primary weather station at Observatory Hill, extreme temperatures have ranged from 45.8 °C (114.4 °F) on 18 January 2013 to 2.1 °C (35.8 °F) on 22 June 1932. An average of 14.9 days a year have temperatures at or above 30 °C (86 °F) in the central business district (CBD). In contrast, the metropolitan area averages between 35 and 65 days, depending on the suburb. The hottest day in the metropolitan area occurred in Penrith on 4 January 2020, where a high of 48.9 °C (120.0 °F) was recorded. The average annual temperature of the sea ranges from 18.5 °C (65.3 °F) in September to 23.7 °C (74.7 °F) in February. Sydney has an average of 7.2 hours of sunshine per day and 109.5 clear days annually. Due to the inland location, frost is recorded early in the morning in Western Sydney a few times in winter. Autumn and spring are the transitional seasons, with spring showing a larger temperature variation than autumn. Sydney experiences an urban heat island effect. This makes certain parts of the city more vulnerable to extreme heat, including coastal suburbs. In late spring and summer, temperatures over 35 °C (95 °F) are not uncommon, though hot, dry conditions are usually ended by a southerly buster, a powerful southerly that brings gale winds and a rapid fall in temperature. Since Sydney is downwind of the Great Dividing Range, it occasionally experiences dry, westerly foehn winds typically in winter and early spring (which are the reason for its warm maximum temperatures). Westerly winds are intense when the Roaring Forties (or the Southern Annular Mode) shift towards southeastern Australia, where they may damage homes and affect flights, in addition to making the temperature seem colder than it actually is. Rainfall has a moderate to low variability and has historically been fairly uniform throughout the year, although in recent years it has been more summer-dominant and erratic. Precipitation is usually higher in summer through to autumn, and lower in late winter to early spring. In late autumn and winter, east coast lows may bring large amounts of rainfall, especially in the CBD. In the warm season black nor'easters are usually the cause of heavy rain events, though other forms of low-pressure areas, including remnants of ex-cyclones, may also bring heavy deluge and afternoon thunderstorms. Snowfall was last reported in 1836, though a fall of graupel, or soft hail, in the Upper North Shore was mistaken by many for snow, in July 2008. In 2009, dry conditions brought a severe dust storm towards the city. Climate data for Sydney (Observatory Hill) 1991–2020 averages, 1861–present extremes Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 45.8 (114.4) 42.1 (107.8) 39.8 (103.6) 35.4 (95.7) 30.0 (86.0) 26.9 (80.4) 26.5 (79.7) 31.3 (88.3) 34.6 (94.3) 38.2 (100.8) 41.8 (107.2) 42.2 (108.0) 45.8 (114.4) Mean maximum °C (°F) 36.8 (98.2) 34.1 (93.4) 32.2 (90.0) 29.7 (85.5) 26.2 (79.2) 22.3 (72.1) 22.9 (73.2) 25.4 (77.7) 29.9 (85.8) 33.6 (92.5) 34.1 (93.4) 34.4 (93.9) 38.8 (101.8) Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 27.0 (80.6) 26.8 (80.2) 25.7 (78.3) 23.6 (74.5) 20.9 (69.6) 18.3 (64.9) 17.9 (64.2) 19.3 (66.7) 21.6 (70.9) 23.2 (73.8) 24.2 (75.6) 25.7 (78.3) 22.8 (73.0) Daily mean °C (°F) 23.5 (74.3) 23.4 (74.1) 22.1 (71.8) 19.5 (67.1) 16.6 (61.9) 14.2 (57.6) 13.4 (56.1) 14.5 (58.1) 17.0 (62.6) 18.9 (66.0) 20.4 (68.7) 22.1 (71.8) 18.8 (65.8) Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 20.0 (68.0) 19.9 (67.8) 18.4 (65.1) 15.3 (59.5) 12.3 (54.1) 10.0 (50.0) 8.9 (48.0) 9.7 (49.5) 12.3 (54.1) 14.6 (58.3) 16.6 (61.9) 18.4 (65.1) 14.7 (58.5) Mean minimum °C (°F) 16.1 (61.0) 16.1 (61.0) 14.2 (57.6) 11.0 (51.8) 8.3 (46.9) 6.5 (43.7) 5.7 (42.3) 6.1 (43.0) 8.0 (46.4) 9.8 (49.6) 12.0 (53.6) 13.9 (57.0) 5.3 (41.5) Record low °C (°F) 10.6 (51.1) 9.6 (49.3) 9.3 (48.7) 7.0 (44.6) 4.4 (39.9) 2.1 (35.8) 2.2 (36.0) 2.7 (36.9) 4.9 (40.8) 5.7 (42.3) 7.7 (45.9) 9.1 (48.4) 2.1 (35.8) Average rainfall mm (inches) 91.1 (3.59) 131.5 (5.18) 117.5 (4.63) 114.1 (4.49) 100.8 (3.97) 142.0 (5.59) 80.3 (3.16) 75.1 (2.96) 63.4 (2.50) 67.7 (2.67) 90.6 (3.57) 73.0 (2.87) 1,149.7 (45.26) Average rainy days (≥ 1 mm) 8.2 9.0 10.1 7.9 7.9 9.3 7.2 5.6 5.8 7.6 8.7 7.9 95.2 Average afternoon relative humidity (%) 60 62 59 58 58 56 52 47 49 53 57 58 56 Average dew point °C (°F) 16.5 (61.7) 17.2 (63.0) 15.4 (59.7) 12.7 (54.9) 10.3 (50.5) 7.8 (46.0) 6.1 (43.0) 5.4 (41.7) 7.8 (46.0) 10.2 (50.4) 12.6 (54.7) 14.6 (58.3) 11.4 (52.5) Mean monthly sunshine hours 232.5 205.9 210.8 213.0 204.6 171.0 207.7 248.0 243.0 244.9 222.0 235.6 2,639 Percent possible sunshine 53 54 55 63 63 57 66 72 67 61 55 55 60 Source 1: Bureau of Meteorology Source 2: Bureau of Meteorology, Sydney Airport (sunshine hours) (Full article...)

Under the Köppen–Geiger classification, Sydney has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) with "warm, sometimes hot" summers and "generally mild", to "cool" winters. The El Niño–Southern Oscillation, the Indian Ocean Dipole and the Southern Annular Mode play an important role in determining Sydney's weather patterns: drought and bushfire on the one hand, and storms and flooding on the other, associated with the opposite phases of the oscillation in Australia. The weather is moderated by proximity to the ocean, and more extreme temperatures are recorded in the inland western suburbs. At Sydney's primary weather station at Observatory Hill, extreme temperatures have ranged from 45.8 °C (114.4 °F) on 18 January 2013 to 2.1 °C (35.8 °F) on 22 June 1932. An average of 14.9 days a year have temperatures at or above 30 °C (86 °F) in the central business district (CBD). In contrast, the metropolitan area averages between 35 and 65 days, depending on the suburb. The hottest day in the metropolitan area occurred in Penrith on 4 January 2020, where a high of 48.9 °C (120.0 °F) was recorded. The average annual temperature of the sea ranges from 18.5 °C (65.3 °F) in September to 23.7 °C (74.7 °F) in February. Sydney has an average of 7.2 hours of sunshine per day and 109.5 clear days annually. Due to the inland location, frost is recorded early in the morning in Western Sydney a few times in winter. Autumn and spring are the transitional seasons, with spring showing a larger temperature variation than autumn. Sydney experiences an urban heat island effect. This makes certain parts of the city more vulnerable to extreme heat, including coastal suburbs. In late spring and summer, temperatures over 35 °C (95 °F) are not uncommon, though hot, dry conditions are usually ended by a southerly buster, a powerful southerly that brings gale winds and a rapid fall in temperature. Since Sydney is downwind of the Great Dividing Range, it occasionally experiences dry, westerly foehn winds typically in winter and early spring (which are the reason for its warm maximum temperatures). Westerly winds are intense when the Roaring Forties (or the Southern Annular Mode) shift towards southeastern Australia, where they may damage homes and affect flights, in addition to making the temperature seem colder than it actually is. Rainfall has a moderate to low variability and has historically been fairly uniform throughout the year, although in recent years it has been more summer-dominant and erratic. Precipitation is usually higher in summer through to autumn, and lower in late winter to early spring. In late autumn and winter, east coast lows may bring large amounts of rainfall, especially in the CBD. In the warm season black nor'easters are usually the cause of heavy rain events, though other forms of low-pressure areas, including remnants of ex-cyclones, may also bring heavy deluge and afternoon thunderstorms. Snowfall was last reported in 1836, though a fall of graupel, or soft hail, in the Upper North Shore was mistaken by many for snow, in July 2008. In 2009, dry conditions brought a severe dust storm towards the city. Climate data for Sydney (Observatory Hill) 1991–2020 averages, 1861–present extremes Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C (°F) 45.8 (114.4) 42.1 (107.8) 39.8 (103.6) 35.4 (95.7) 30.0 (86.0) 26.9 (80.4) 26.5 (79.7) 31.3 (88.3) 34.6 (94.3) 38.2 (100.8) 41.8 (107.2) 42.2 (108.0) 45.8 (114.4) Mean maximum °C (°F) 36.8 (98.2) 34.1 (93.4) 32.2 (90.0) 29.7 (85.5) 26.2 (79.2) 22.3 (72.1) 22.9 (73.2) 25.4 (77.7) 29.9 (85.8) 33.6 (92.5) 34.1 (93.4) 34.4 (93.9) 38.8 (101.8) Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 27.0 (80.6) 26.8 (80.2) 25.7 (78.3) 23.6 (74.5) 20.9 (69.6) 18.3 (64.9) 17.9 (64.2) 19.3 (66.7) 21.6 (70.9) 23.2 (73.8) 24.2 (75.6) 25.7 (78.3) 22.8 (73.0) Daily mean °C (°F) 23.5 (74.3) 23.4 (74.1) 22.1 (71.8) 19.5 (67.1) 16.6 (61.9) 14.2 (57.6) 13.4 (56.1) 14.5 (58.1) 17.0 (62.6) 18.9 (66.0) 20.4 (68.7) 22.1 (71.8) 18.8 (65.8) Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 20.0 (68.0) 19.9 (67.8) 18.4 (65.1) 15.3 (59.5) 12.3 (54.1) 10.0 (50.0) 8.9 (48.0) 9.7 (49.5) 12.3 (54.1) 14.6 (58.3) 16.6 (61.9) 18.4 (65.1) 14.7 (58.5) Mean minimum °C (°F) 16.1 (61.0) 16.1 (61.0) 14.2 (57.6) 11.0 (51.8) 8.3 (46.9) 6.5 (43.7) 5.7 (42.3) 6.1 (43.0) 8.0 (46.4) 9.8 (49.6) 12.0 (53.6) 13.9 (57.0) 5.3 (41.5) Record low °C (°F) 10.6 (51.1) 9.6 (49.3) 9.3 (48.7) 7.0 (44.6) 4.4 (39.9) 2.1 (35.8) 2.2 (36.0) 2.7 (36.9) 4.9 (40.8) 5.7 (42.3) 7.7 (45.9) 9.1 (48.4) 2.1 (35.8) Average rainfall mm (inches) 91.1 (3.59) 131.5 (5.18) 117.5 (4.63) 114.1 (4.49) 100.8 (3.97) 142.0 (5.59) 80.3 (3.16) 75.1 (2.96) 63.4 (2.50) 67.7 (2.67) 90.6 (3.57) 73.0 (2.87) 1,149.7 (45.26) Average rainy days (≥ 1 mm) 8.2 9.0 10.1 7.9 7.9 9.3 7.2 5.6 5.8 7.6 8.7 7.9 95.2 Average afternoon relative humidity (%) 60 62 59 58 58 56 52 47 49 53 57 58 56 Average dew point °C (°F) 16.5 (61.7) 17.2 (63.0) 15.4 (59.7) 12.7 (54.9) 10.3 (50.5) 7.8 (46.0) 6.1 (43.0) 5.4 (41.7) 7.8 (46.0) 10.2 (50.4) 12.6 (54.7) 14.6 (58.3) 11.4 (52.5) Mean monthly sunshine hours 232.5 205.9 210.8 213.0 204.6 171.0 207.7 248.0 243.0 244.9 222.0 235.6 2,639 Percent possible sunshine 53 54 55 63 63 57 66 72 67 61 55 55 60 Source 1: Bureau of Meteorology Source 2: Bureau of Meteorology, Sydney Airport (sunshine hours) (Full article...)

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