Talk:List of astronomical objects/workpage
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Most distant astronomical object
[edit]Object | Type | Date | Distance | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
Progenitor of GRB 090423 / Remnant of GRB 090423 | Gamma-ray burst progenitor / Gamma-ray burst remnant | 2009 — | z=8.2 | [1] |
IOK-1 | Galaxy | 2006 − 2009 | z=6.96 | [1][2][3][4] |
SDF J132522.3+273520 | Galaxy | 2005 − 2006 | z=6.597 | [5][4] |
SDF J132418.3+271455 | Galaxy | 2003 − 2005 | z=6.578 | [6][7][8][5] |
HCM-6A | Galaxy | 2002 − 2003 | z=6.56 | The galaxy is lensed by galaxy cluster Abell 370. This was the first non-quasar galaxy found to exceed redshift 6. It exceeded the redshift of quasar SDSSp J103027.10+052455.0 of z=6.28[6][9][10][11][12][7] |
SDSS J1030+0524 (SDSSp J103027.10+052455.0) |
Quasar | 2001 − 2002 | z=6.28 | This was the first object beyond redshift 6 when discovered.[13][14][15][16][17][18] |
SDSS 1044-0125 (SDSSp J104433.04-012502.2) |
Quasar | 2000 − 2001 | z=5.82 | It exceeded galaxy SSA22-HCM1 (z=5.74) as the most distant object (discovered 1999).[19][20][17][18][21][22][23] |
SSA22−HCM1 | Galaxy | 1999 − 2000 | z=5.74 | [24][25] |
HDF 4-473.0 | Galaxy | 1998 − 1999 | z=5.60 | [25] |
RD1 (0140+326 RD1) | Galaxy | 1998 | z=5.34 | This was the first object found beyond redshift 5.[26][27][28][29][25] |
CL 1358+62 G1 & CL 1358+62 G2 | Galaxies | 1997 − 1998 | z=4.92 | These were the remotest objects known at the time of discovery. The pair of galaxies were found lensed by galaxy cluster CL1358+62 (z=0.33). This was the first time since 1964 that something other than a quasar held the record for being the most distant object in the universe. [27][30][31][28][32][25] |
PC 1247-3406 | Quasar | 1991 − 1997 | z=4.897 | [33][34][19][35][36] |
PC 1158+4635 | Quasar | 1989 − 1991 | z=4.73 | [19][37][38][39][36][40] |
Q0051-279 | Quasar | 1987 − 1989 | z=4.43 | [41][42][43][44][37][40] |
Q0000-26 (QSO B0000-26) |
Quasar | 1987 | z=4.11 | [41][37][45] |
PC 0910+5625 (QSO B0910+5625) |
Quasar | 1987 | z=4.04 | This was the second quasar discovered with a redshift over 4.[19][46][47][37] |
Q0046–293 (QSO J0048-2903) |
Quasar | 1987 | z=4.01 | First quasar discovered with a redshift over 4. [41][48][49][37][46] |
Q1208+1011 (QSO B1208+1011) |
Quasar | 1986 − 1987 | z=3.80 | This is a gravitationally-lensed double-image quasar, and at the time of discovery to 1991, had the least angular separation between images, 0.45 ″.[46][50][51] |
PKS 2000-330 (QSO J2003-3251 , Q2000-330) |
Quasar | 1982 − 1986 | z=3.78 | [52][53][46][54] |
OQ172 (QSO B1442+101) |
Quasar | 1974 − 1982 | z=3.53 | [55][56][57] |
OH471 (QSO B0642+449) |
Quasar | 1973 − 1974 | z=3.408 | First quasar discovered with a redshift greater than 3. Nickname was "the blaze marking the edge of the universe". [58][59][55][60][57] |
4C 05.34 | Quasar | 1970 − 1973 | z=2.877 | Its redshift was so much greater than the previous record that it was believed to be erroneous, or spurious.[61][62][57][54][63] |
5C 02.56 (7C 105517.75+495540.95) |
Quasar | 1968 − 1970 | z=2.399 | [64][63][32] |
4C 25.05 (4C 25.5) |
Quasar | 1968 | z=2.358 | [63][65][32] |
PKS 0237-23 (QSO B0237-2321) |
Quasar | 1967 − 1968 | z=2.225 | [66][67][54][68][65] |
4C 12.39 (Q1116+12 , PKS 1116+12) |
Quasar | 1966 − 1967 | z=2.1291 | [69][70][68][32] |
4C 01.02 (Q0106+01 , PKS 0106+1) |
Quasar | 1965 − 1966 | z=2.0990 | [69][71][68][32] |
3C 9 | Quasar | 1965 | z=2.018 | This was the first quasar with a redshift in excess of 2.[72][73][74][75][76][68] |
3C 147 | Quasar | 1964 − 1965 | z=0.545 | This was the first quasar to become the most distant object in the universe, beating radio galaxy 3C 295.[77][78][79][80] |
3C 295 | Radio galaxy | 1960 − 1964 | z=0.461 | This was the last non-quasar to hold the title of most distant object known until 1997.[32][81][82][25][83] |
LEDA 25177 (MCG+01-23-008) | Brightest cluster galaxy | 1951 − 1960 | z=0.2 (V=61000km/s) |
This galaxy lies in the Hydra Supercluster. It is located at B1950.0 08h 55m 4s +03° 21′ and is the BCG of the fainter Hydra Cluster Cl 0855+0321 (ACO 732).[84][85][86][87][25][88][83] |
LEDA 51975 (MCG+05-34-069) | Brightest cluster galaxy | 1936 - | z=0.13 (V=39000km/s) |
The brightest cluster galaxy of the Bootes cluster (ACO 1930), an elliptical galaxy at B1950.0 14h 30m 6s +31° 46′ apparent magnitude 17.8, was found by Milton L. Humason in 1936 to have a 40,000 km/s recessional redshift velocity.[89][90][87] |
LEDA 20221 (MCG+06-16-021) | Brightest cluster galaxy | 1932 - | z=0.075 (V=23000km/s) |
This is the BCG of the Gemini Cluster (ACO 568) and was located at B1950.0 07h 05m 0s +35° 04′[91][89] |
BCG of WMH Christie's Leo Cluster | Brightest cluster galaxy | 1931 − 1932 | z= (V=19700km/s) |
[92][93][94][91] |
BCG of Baede's Ursa Major Cluster | Brightest cluster galaxy | 1930 − 1931 | z= (V=11700km/s) |
[94][95] |
NGC 4860 | Galaxy | 1929 − 1930 | z=0.026 (V=7800km/s) |
[96][97][95] |
NGC 7619 | Galaxy | 1929 | z=0.012 (V=3779km/s) |
Using redshift measurements, NGC 7619 was the highest at the time of measurement. At the time of announcement, it was not yet accepted as a general guide to distance, however, later in the year, Edwin Hubble described redshift in relation to distance, leading to a seachange, and having this being accepted as an inferred distance.[98][99][96] |
NGC 584 (Dreyer nebula 584) | Galaxy | 1921 − 1929 | z=0.006 (V=1800km/s) |
At the time, nebula had yet to be accepted as independent galaxies. However, in 1923, galaxies were generally recognized as external to the Milky Way.[98][96][100][101][102][103][87] |
M104 (NGC 4594) | Galaxy | 1913 − 1921 | z=0.004 (V=1180km/s) |
This was the second galaxy whose redshift was determined; the first being Andromeda - which is approaching us and thus cannot have its redshift used to infer distance. Both were measured by Vesto Melvin Slipher. At this time, nebula had yet to be accepted as independent galaxies. NGC 4594 was originally measured as 1000 km/s, then refined to 1100, and then to 1180 in 1916.[96][100][103] |
Capella | Star | -1876- | 72 ly | [104] |
Polaris | Star | 50 ly (this is very inaccurate) | [105] | |
Vega (Alpha Lyrae) |
Star (part of a double star pair) | 1839 — | 7.77 pc (125 mas) |
[105] |
61 Cygni | Binary star | 1838 − 1839 | 3.48 pc (313.6 mas) |
This was the first star other than the Sun to have its distance measured. [106][107][105] |
Uranus | Planet of the Solar System | 1781 − 1838 | 18 AU | This was the last planet discovered before the first successful measurement of stellar parallax. It had been determined that the stars were much farther away than the planets. |
Saturn | Planet of the Solar System | 1619 − 1781 | 10 AU | From Kepler's Third Law, it was finally determined that Saturn is indeed the outermost of the classical planets, and its distance derived. It had only previously been conjectured to be the outermost, due to it having the longest orbital period, and slowest orbital motion. It had been determined that the stars were much farther away than the planets. |
Mars | Planet of the Solar System | 1609 − 1619 | 2.6 AU when Mars is diametrically opposed to Earth | Kepler correctly characterized Mars and Earth's orbits in Astronomia nova. It had been conjectured that the fixed stars were much farther away than the planets. |
Sun | Star | 3rd century BCE — 1609 | 20x Earth-Moon distance (this is very inaccurate) | Aristarchus of Samos made a measurement of the distance of the Sun from the Earth in relation to the distance of the Moon from the Earth. The distance to the Moon was described in Earth radii (20, also inaccurate). The diameter of the Earth had previously been calculated. At the time, it was assumed that some of the planets were further away, but their distances could not be measured. The order of the planets was conjecture until Kepler determined the distances of the four true planets from the Sun that were not Earth. It had been conjectured that the fixed stars were much farther away than the planets. |
|
Most distant astronomical event
[edit]Event | Type | Date | Distance | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|
Decoupling of matter and radiation | Cosmic Microwave Background | 1964 — | z=1100 approximately | For reference. [108] |
GRB 090423 | Gamma-ray burst | April 2009 — | z=8.2 | [1] |
GRB 080913 | Gamma-ray burst | September 2008 — April 2009 | z=6.7 | [1][109] |
GRB 050904 | Gamma-ray burst | September 2005 — September 2008 | z=6.29 | [109][110][111] |
|
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d New Scientist, "Most distant object in the universe spotted", Rachel Courtland, 22:32 27 April 2009 (accessed 2009-11-11)
- ^ New Scientist, "First generation of galaxies glimpsed forming", David Shiga, 19:01 13 September 2006 (accessed 2009/11/11)
- ^ Nature 443, 186-188 (14 September 2006), A galaxy at a redshift z = 6.96, doi:10.1038/nature05104;
- ^ a b arXiv, Star Forming Galaxies at z > 5 , Fri, 4 April 2008
- ^ a b PASJ: Publ. Astron. Soc. Japan 57, 165-182, February 25, 2005; The SUBARU Deep Field Project: Lymanα Emitters at a Redshift of 6.6
- ^ a b BBC News, Most distant galaxy detected, Tuesday, 25 March, 2003, 14:28 GMT
- ^ a b SpaceRef, Subaru Telescope Detects the Most Distant Galaxy Yet and Expects Many More, Monday, March 24, 2003
- ^ arXiv, The Discovery of Two Lyman$\alpha$ Emitters Beyond Redshift 6 in the Subaru Deep Field, 28 February 2003
- ^ New Scientist, New record for Universe's most distant object, 17:19 14 March 2002
- ^ BBC News, Far away stars light early cosmos, Thursday, 14 March, 2002, 11:38 GMT
- ^ The Astrophysical Journal Letters, 568:L75–L79, April 1, 2002 ; A Redshift z = 6.56 Galaxy behind the Cluster Abell 370 ; DOI: 10.1086/340424
- ^ K2.1 HCM 6A — Discovery of a redshift z = 6.56 galaxy lying behind the cluster Abell 370
- ^ arXiv, VLT observations of the z= 6.28 quasar SDSS 1030+0524, Feb 2002
- ^ The Astrophysical Journal, 578:702–707, 2002 October 20, A Constraint on the Gravitational Lensing Magnification and Age of the Redshift z = 6.28 Quasar SDSS 1030+0524
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
REIONz.gt.6
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ The Astrophysical Journal, Volume 611, Issue 1, pp. L13-L16 ; The X-Ray Spectrum of the z=6.30 QSO SDSS J1030+0524 ; 2004ApJ...611L..13F
- ^ a b PennState Eberly College of Science, Discovery Announced of Two Most Distant Objects, June 2001
- ^ a b SDSS, Early results from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey: From under our nose to the edge of the universe, June 2001
- ^ a b c d PennState - Eberly College of Science - Science Journal - Summer 2000 -- Vol. 17, No. 1 International Team of Astronomers Finds Most Distant Object
- ^ The Astrophysical Journal Letters, 522:L9–L12, 1999 September 1, An Extremely Luminous Galaxy at z = 5.74
- ^ PennState Eberly College of Science, X-rays from the Most Distant Quasar Captured with the XMM-Newton Satellite, Dec 2000
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
10Feb2005
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ SPACE.com, Most Distant Object in Universe Comes Closer, 01 December 2000
- ^ The Astrophysical Journal Letters, 522:L9–L12, September 1, 1999, An Extremely Luminous Galaxy at z = 5.74
- ^ a b c d e f Cite error: The named reference
Stern04Sept
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Cite error: The named reference
NYT-1998-10-20
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ a b Astronomy Picture of the Day, A Baby Galaxy, March 24, 1998
- ^ a b arXiv, A Galaxy at z = 5.34 209 KB, 11 March 1998
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
UCLA
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Astronomy Picture of the Day, Behind CL1358+62: A New Farthest Object, July 31, 1997
- ^ Astrophysical Journal Letters v.486, p.L75 ; 09/1997, A Pair of Lensed Galaxies at z=4.92 in the Field of CL 1358+62 ; 1997ApJ...486L..75F ; 10.1086/310844
- ^ a b c d e f "Astrophysics and Space Science" 1999, 269/270, 165-181 ; GALAXIES AT HIGH REDSHIFT - 8. Z > 5 GALAXIES ; Garth Illingworth
- ^ The Astronomical Journal, vol. 108, no. 4, p. 1147-1155, Multicolor detection of high-redshift quasars, 2: Five objects with Z greater than or approximately equal to 4, April 1994
- ^ New Scientist, issue 1842, 10 October 1992, page 17, Science: Infant galaxy's light show
- ^ FermiLab Scientists of Sloan Digital Sky Survey Discover Most Distant Quasar December 8, 1998
- ^ a b Royal Astronomical Society, Monthly Notices, vol. 294, p. L7-L12 ; Discovery of radio-loud quasars with Z = 4.72 and Z = 4.01 ; Code: 1998MNRAS.294L...7H
- ^ a b c d e Astronomical Journal (ISSN 0004-6256), vol. 101, Jan. 1991, p. 5-17; Quasars and galaxy formation. I - The Z > 4 objects
- ^ SIMBAD, Object query : PC 1158+4635, QSO B1158+4635 -- Quasar
- ^ LENNOX L. COWIE (1991) Young Galaxies Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 647 (1), 31–41 doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1991.tb32157.x
- ^ a b New York Times, Peering to Edge of Time, Scientists Are Astonished, November 20, 1989
- ^ a b c Nature 330, 453 - 455 (03 December 1987); Quasars of redshift z = 4.43 and z = 4.07 in the South Galactic Pole field, doi:10.1038/330453a0
- ^ Astrophysics, Volume 29, Number 2 / September, 1988, pp.657-671, Absorption spectra of quasars, ISSN 0571-7256, DOI 10.1007/BF01005972
- ^ New York Times, Objects Detected in Universe May Be the Most Distant Ever Sighted, January 14, 1988
- ^ New York Times, Astronomers Peer Deeper Into Cosmos, May 10, 1988
- ^ SIMBAD, Object query : Q0000-26, QSO B0000-26 -- Quasar
- ^ a b c d Astrophysical Journal, Part 2 - Letters to the Editor (ISSN 0004-637X), vol. 321, Oct. 1, 1987, p. L7-L10. Research supported by the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation. Astrophys. J., 321, L7-L10 (1987) - 01.01.86 01.01.86 October 1987 ; [1] PC 0910+5625 : an optically selected quasar with a redshift of 4.04 ; 1987ApJ...321L...7S
- ^ SIMBAD, Object query : PC 0910+5625, QSO B0910+5625 -- Quasar
- ^ Nature, 325, 131-132 (1987) - 01.01.86 01.01.86 ; First observation of a quasar with a redshift of 4; 1987Natur.325..131W
- ^ SIMBAD, Object query : Q0046-293, QSO J0048-2903 -- Quasar
- ^ SIMBAD, Object query : Q1208+1011, QSO B1208+1011 -- Quasar
- ^ NewScientist, Quasar doubles help to fix the Hubble constant, 16 November 1991
- ^ Orwell Astronomical Society (Ipswich) - OASI ; Archived Astronomy News Items, 1972 - 1997
- ^ SIMBAD, Object query : PKS 2000-330, QSO J2003-3251 -- Quasar
- ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference
UoM23
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ a b OSU Big Ear, History of the OSU Radio Observatory
- ^ SIMBAD, Object query : OQ172, QSO B1442+101 -- Quasar
- ^ a b c QUASARS - THREE YEARS LATER, 1974 [2]
- ^ Time Magazine, The Edge of Night, Monday, Apr. 23, 1973
- ^ SIMBAD, Object query : OH471, QSO B0642+449 -- Quasar
- ^ Reports on Progress in Physics, Volume 53, Issue 8 (August 1990)The detection of high-redshift quasars
- ^ Astrophysical Journal, vol. 163, p.235 ; Some Inferences from Spectrophotometry of Quasi-Stellar Sources ; 1971ApJ...163..235B
- ^ Quasars and Pulsars, DEWEY B. LARSON, (c) 1971 ; CHAPTER VIII - Quasars: The General Picture ; LOC 75-158894
- ^ a b c Nature 226, 532 (09 May 1970); The Unusually Large Redshift of 4C 05.34 ; doi:10.1038/226532a0
- ^ SIMBAD, Object query : 5C 02.56, 7C 105517.75+495540.95 -- Quasar
- ^ a b Astrophysical Journal, vol. 154, p.L41 ; The Distribution of Redshifts in Quasi-Stellar Objects, N-Systems and Some Radio and Compact Galaxies ; 1968ApJ...154L..41B
- ^ Time Magazine, A Farther-Out Quasar, Friday, Apr. 07, 1967
- ^ SIMBAD, Object query : QSO B0237-2321, QSO B0237-2321 -- Quasar
- ^ a b c d Astrophysical Journal, vol. 147, p.851 ; On the Wavelengths of the Absorption Lines in Quasi-Stellar Objects ; 1967ApJ...147..851B
- ^ a b Time Magazine, The Man on the Mountain, Friday, Mar. 11, 1966
- ^ SIMBAD, Object query : Q1116+12, 4C 12.39 -- Quasar
- ^ SIMBAD, Object query : Q0106+01, 4C 01.02 -- Quasar
- ^ Time Magazine, Toward the Edge of the Universe, Friday, May. 21, 1965
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
Quasi-Quasars
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ The Cosmic Century: A History of Astrophysics and Cosmology Page 379 by Malcolm S. Longair - 2006
- ^ Astrophysical Journal, vol. 141, p.1295 ; Large Redshifts of Five Quasi-Stellar Sources ; 1965ApJ...141.1295S
- ^ The Discovery of Radio Galaxies and Quasars, 1965
- ^ Quasi-Stellar Sources and Gravitational Collapse, Proceedings of the 1st Texas Symposium on Relativistic Astrophysics. Edited by Ivor Robinson, Alfred Schild and E.L. Schucking. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965., p.269 ; Redshifts of the Quasi-Stellar Radio Sources 3c 47 and 3c 147
- ^ Astronomical Journal (ISSN 0004-6256), vol. 103, no. 5, May 1992, p. 1451-1456 ; Radio properties of optically selected high-redshift quasars. I - VLA observations of 22 quasars at 6 CM ; 1992AJ....103.1451S
- ^ Time Magazine, Finding the Fastest Galaxy: 76,000 Miles per Second, Friday, Apr. 10, 1964
- ^ Astrophysical Journal, vol. 139, p.781 ; Redshift of the Quasi-Stellar Radio Sources 3c 47 and 3c 147. 1964ApJ...139..781S
- ^ The Discovery of Radio Galaxies and Quasars
- ^ Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics Vol. 31: 639-688 (September 1993) ; High Redshift Radio Galaxies ; (doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.003231)
- ^ a b Astrophysical Journal, vol. 133, p.355 ; The Ability of the 200-INCH Telescope to Discriminate Between Selected World Models ; 1961ApJ...133..355S
- ^ Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 113, p.658 ; The law of red shifts (George Darwin Lecture) Hubble, E. P. ; 1953MNRAS.113..658H
- ^ OBSERVATIONAL TESTS OF WORLD MODELS; 6.1. Local Tests for Linearity of the Redshift-Distance Relation ; Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 1988. 26: 561-630
- ^ Astron. J., 61, 97-162 (1956) ; Redshifts and magnitudes of extragalactic nebulae ; 1956AJ.....61...97H
- ^ a b c The Observatory, Vol. 73, p. 97-103 (1953) ; May 8, 1953 meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society ; 1953Obs....73...97.
- ^ Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 7, p.393 ; From Atoms to Galaxies ; 1958ASPL....7..393M
- ^ a b Astrophysical Journal, vol. 83, p.10 ; The Apparent Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic Nebulae ; 1936ApJ....83...10H
- ^ THE FIRST 50 YEARS AT PALOMAR: 1949-1999 ; The Early Years of Stellar Evolution, Cosmology, and High-Energy Astrophysics; 5.2.1. The Mount Wilson Years ; Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 1999. 37: 445-486
- ^ a b Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, Vol. 26, p.180 ; Notes and Queries (Doings at Mount Wilson-Ritchey's Photographic Telescope-Infra-red Photographic Plates) ; 1932JRASC..26..180C
- ^ Astrophysical Journal, vol. 74, p.35 ; Apparent Velocity-Shifts in the Spectra of Faint Nebulae ; 07/1931 ; 1931ApJ....74...35H
- ^ Astrophysical Journal, vol. 74, p.43 ; The Velocity-Distance Relation among Extra-Galactic Nebulae ; 1931ApJ....74...43H
- ^ a b Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 1, p.149 ; The Large Apparent Velocities of Extra-Galactic Nebulae ; 1931ASPL....1..149H
- ^ a b Astrophys. J., 71, 351-356 (1930) The Rayton short-focus spectrographic objective. 1930ApJ....71..351H
- ^ a b c d Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, v.108, p.1073-1082 ; H_0: The Incredible Shrinking Constant, 1925-1975 ; 1996PASP..108.1073T
- ^ Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, Vol. 41, No. 242, p.244 ; The Berkeley Meeting of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, June 20-21, 1929 ; 1929PASP...41..244
- ^ a b From the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences; Volume 15 : March 15, 1929 : Number 3 ; THE LARGE RADIAL VELOCITY OF N. G. C. 7619 ; January 17, 1929
- ^ THE JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA / JOURNAL DE LA SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE D'ASTRONOMIE DU CANADA; Vol. 83, No.6 December 1989 Whole No. 621 ; EDWIN HUBBLE 1889-1953
- ^ a b National Academy of Sciences; Biographical Memoirs: V. 52 - VESTO MELVIN SLIPHER; ISBN 0309030994
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- ^ New York Times, DREYER NEBULA NO. 584 INCONCEIVABLY DISTANT; Dr. Slipher Says the Celestial Speed Champion Is 'Many Millions of Light Years' Away. ; January 19, 1921, Wednesday
- ^ a b New York Times, NEBULA DREYER BREAKS ALL SKY SPEED RECORDS; Portion of the Constellation of Cetus Is Rushing Along at Rate of 1,240 Miles a Second. ; January 18, 1921, Tuesday
- ^ "The Three Heavens", Josiah Crampton, William Hunt and Company (1876), pp.164
- ^ a b c The North American Review, "The Observatory at Pulkowa", FGW Struve, Volume 69 Issue 144 (July 1849)
- ^ SEDS, "Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (July 22, 1784 - March 17, 1846)" (accessed 11 November 2009)
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- ^ University of Washington, The "Cosmic Microwave Background & the Curvature of Space" (accessed 11-11-2009)
- ^ a b New Scientist, "Cosmic explosion is most distant ever seen", Maggie McKee, 01:22 20 September 2008 (accessed 11/11/2009)
- ^ New Scientist, "Blazing gamma-ray burst is most distant ever", Jeff Hecht, 11:47 13 September 2005 (accessed 2009 November 11)
- ^ Astronomy and Astrophysics, "GRB050904 at redshift 6.3: observations of the oldest cosmic explosion after the Big Bang", A&A 443, L1–L5 (2005), doi:10.1051/0004-6361:200500196 (accessed 2009/11/11)