Talk:Coconut oil/ExtendedDraft

Coconut oil is a vegetable oil extracted from the kernel or meat of matured coconuts harvested from the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera). Oil extraction usually involves either a wet or dry process. Throughout the tropical world it has provided the primary source of fat in the diets of millions of people for generations, but due to being high in saturated fats, health organizations recommend avoidance or restriction in its intake. Despite this it has developed a following among natural and whole foods devotees and vegetarians. Because of its high lauric acid content it is considered a lauric oil along with palm kernel oil. It has various applications in food, medicine, and industry.

Production

The wet process for making coconut oil is the original and variations of it are the cleanest way to extract coconut oil. The dry process was invented as a way to mass produce a food and industrial grade oil although there are some drawbacks to its extraction method.

In the traditional wet process method, coconut milk is made first and then the oil is extracted from the milk. Coconut kernel is shredded and mixed with water. Then it is pressed and the oil is extracted. The resulting oil/water mixture is left to sit and it separates into two layers, watery on the bottom, creamy on top. The thicker cream is decanted off the top and the original method of separation involved heating or fermenting the milk to separate the oil.^[1] This traditional method made a very unstable oil with a short shelf life meant for quick daily use.

More modern wet process methods similarly turn the raw coconut meat into an emulsion to help separate the oil from the rest of the coconut kernel's components but use different methods for the more problematic step of breaking up the emulsion to recover the oil. Lengthy boiling was an earlier method, but this produces a discolored oil and is not economical; modern techniques use centrifuges and various pre-treatments including cold, heat, acids, salts, enzymes, electrolysis, shock waves, or some combination of them. Despite numerous variations and technologies, wet processing is less viable than dry processing due to a 10–15% lower yield, even compared to the losses associated with dry processing. Wet processes also require an expensive investment of equipment and energy, incurring high capital and operating costs.^[2]

In dry processing, fresh coconuts are dried to produce copra, a step that facilitates oil extraction. After being dried through fire, sunlight or kilns, the coconut meat is removed from the shell and pressed to release coconut oil. A thousand mature coconuts yields around 170 kilograms (370 lb) of copra from which around 70 liters (18 U.S. gal) of coconut oil can be extracted.^[3] The process also produces a high protein, high fiber mash by-product copra cake (also called coconut cake, coconut meal, copra meal or poonac) that while unsuitable for human consumption is useful as animal feed or fertilizer.^[4] The preparation and storage of copra often occurs in unhygienic conditions which results in a poor quality oil that requires refining before consumption. A considerable portion of the oil extracted from copra is lost during the extraction process and also to spoilage and pests.

Proper harvesting of the coconut (the age of a coconut can be 2 to 20 months when picked) makes a significant difference in the efficacy of the oil making process and the use of a centrifuge process makes the best final extracted product. Copra made from immature nuts is more difficult to work with and produces an inferior product with lower yields.^[5] Any coconut oil made from a non-copra style of extraction can be called virgin organic coconut oil but only the centrifuge process can make raw oil. When done properly it doesn't need to be heated or fermented to remove moisture.^[6]

RBD

RBD stands for "refined, bleached, and deodorized." RBD oil is usually made from copra (dried coconut kernel). Copra can be made by smoke drying, sun drying, or kiln drying. The dried copra is placed in a powerful hydraulic press with added heat and the oil is extracted. This yields up practically all the oil present, amounting to more than 60% of the dry weight of the coconut.^[7]

This "crude" coconut oil is not suitable for consumption because it contains contaminants and must be refined with further heating and filtering.

Another method for extraction of a "high quality" coconut oil involves the enzymatic action of alpha-amylase, polygalacturonases and proteases on diluted coconut paste.^[8]

Unlike virgin coconut oil, refined coconut oil has no coconut taste or aroma. RBD oil is used for home cooking, commercial food processing, and cosmetic, industrial, and pharmaceutical purposes.

Hydrogenation

RBD coconut oil can be processed further into partially or fully hydrogenated oil to increase its melting point. Since virgin and RBD coconut oils melt at 76 °F (24 °C), foods containing coconut oil tend to melt in warm climates. A higher melting point is desirable in these warm climates so the oil is hydrogenated. The melting point of hydrogenated coconut oil is 97–104 °F (36–40 °C).

In the process of hydrogenation, unsaturated fats (monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids) are combined with hydrogen in a catalytic process to make them more saturated. Coconut oil contains only 6% monounsaturated and 2% polyunsaturated fatty acids. In this process some of these are transformed into trans fatty acids.

Fractionation

Fractionated coconut oil is a fraction of the whole oil, in which the different medium chain fatty acids are separated for specific uses. Lauric acid, a 12 carbon chain fatty acid, is often removed because of its high value for industrial and medical purposes. Fractionated coconut oil may also be referred to as caprylic/capric triglyceride oil or medium chain triglyceride (MCT) oil because it is primarily the medium chain caprylic (8 carbons) and capric (10 carbons) acids that make up the bulk of the oil. MCT oil is most frequently used for medical applications and special diets.

Figures

The United States Department of Agriculture has published historical production figures for coconut oil for years beginning October 1 and ending September 30. Coconut oil makes up around 2.5% of world vegetable oil production. Over the last few years coconut oil production is estimated to have been as follows:^[9]

Year	2005–06	2006–07	2007–08	2008–09	2009–10	Jan 2010–11
Production, Million Tonne	3.46	3.22	3.53	3.53	3.62	3.67

Composition

Coconut oil contains approximately 92.1% saturated fatty acids, 6.2% monounsaturated fatty acids, 1.6% polyunsaturated fatty acids. It also contains phytosterols and some phenols such as ferulic acid and p-coumaric acid which are found in greater amount in unrefined rather than refined coconut oil.^[10]^[11]

Fatty acid content of coconut oil
Type of fatty acid			Pct
Lauric saturated C12			47.5%
Myristic saturated C14			18.1%
Palmitic saturated C16			8.8%
Caprylic saturated C8			7.8%
Capric saturated C10			6.7%
Stearic saturated C18			2.6%
Caproic saturated C6			0.5%
Oleic monounsaturated C18			6.2%
Linoleic polyunsaturated C18			1.6%
The above numbers are averages based on samples taken. Numbers can vary slightly depending on age of the coconut, growing conditions, and variety. red : saturated orange : monounsaturated blue : polyunsaturated

Standards

The WHO/FAO Codex Alimentarius has its standard for named vegetable oils including coconut oil.^[12] The Asian and Pacific Coconut Community (APCC), whose 17 members produce about 90% of the coconut sold commercially,^[13] has published its Standards for Virgin Coconut Oil.^[14] The Philippines has established a Department of Science and Technology (DOST) governmental standard.^[15]

Health

The United States Food and Drug Administration has not been petitioned to review claims for coconut oil but is concerned over its high levels of saturated fats.^[16] It says consumers should limit intake of saturated fats to less than 10% of total daily calories.^[17] The United States Department of Health and Human Services,^[18] American Dietetic Association,^[19] American Heart Association,^[20] British National Health Service,^[21] and Dietitians of Canada^[19] recommend against the consumption of coconut oil due to its high levels of saturated fats although there is some controversy over whether saturated fats are as bad as frequently made out.

Coconut oil has a high content of lauric acid which has been found to increase total cholesterol the most of all fatty acids. But most of the increase is attributable to an increase in high density lipoprotein (HDL) "good" cholesterol. As a result, lauric acid actually has "a more favorable effect on total:HDL cholesterol than any other fatty acid, either saturated or unsaturated".^[22] However, it is still unclear what other effects coconut oil may have through other pathways, such as its effects on triglycerides or on arterial thrombosis, or what result coconut oil intake ultimately has on cardiovascular disease (CVD) outcomes.^[22] Studies also show that substituting polyunsaturated fats for saturated fats is likely to produce more beneficial CVD outcomes. Whether this is due to the positive effects of polyunsaturated fats or negative effects of saturated fats is unclear.^[23] Still coconut oil may be a better alternative to partially hydrogenated vegetable oil and animal saturated fats when solid fats are required.^[24] Early studies on the health effects of coconut oil used partially hydrogenated coconut oil, which creates trans fats, and not unhydrogenated coconut oil which has a different health risk profile.^[25]

Coconut oil shares similarities with human breast milk.^[26]^[27] It contains lipids like monolaurin and consists mostly of medium-chain triglycerides, which may not carry the same risks as other saturated fats, and are used in nutritional products and infant formula.^[24]^[28]^[29]

A repellent made from coconut oil can be used to prevent tungiasis-causing sand fleas from invading the body.^[30]

Although rare, some people may experience an allergic reaction to coconut products.^[31]

Uses

Culinary arts

Solidified coconut oil, sold as "coconut butter" by a Norwegian company

Coconut oil is commonly used in cooking, especially in areas where coconuts are grown. Coconut oil has a melting point of around 24 °C (75 °F) and can therefore appear as a solid. In its solid state it is often sold as coconut butter. Because of its saturated fat content, coconut oil is slow to oxidize and resists rancidity. The smoke point for all cooking oils can vary significantly depending on a number of factors^[32] but due to the low molecular weight of its fatty acids, coconut oil tends to have a lower smoke, fire, and flash point than other oils with higher molecular weight fatty acids. One source lists a smoke point of 138 °C (280 °F) for unrefined coconut oil while another gives 177 °C (351 °F);^[33]^[34] refined, bleached, deodorized coconut oil has been measured to have a smoke point of 232 °C (450 °F).

In recent years virgin coconut oil has increasingly become popular in natural food circles and with vegans. It has been described as having a "haunting, nutty, vanilla flavor" that also has a touch of sweetness that works well in baked goods, pastries, and sautés.^[35] Coconut oil is commonly used to flavor many South Asian curries.

The caloric content of coconut oil is very nearly the same as that of other dietary fats, being reduced only slightly by the presence of medium chain triglycerides which constitute less than half of the total fat content. A value of 8.3 kcal/g has been quoted for dietary medium-chain triglycerides.^[36]

Hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated coconut oil is often used in non-dairy creamers, and snack foods including popcorn.^[37] Hydrogenated coconut oil is also sold in Australia under the brand-name Copha and is the main ingredient in Australian snacks such as chocolate crackles and White Christmas.

Industry

Soap

Coconut oil is an important base ingredient for the manufacture of soap. Soap made with coconut oil tends to be hard although it retains more water than those made with other oils and therefore increases manufacturer yields. It is more soluble in hard water and salt water than other soaps allowing it to lather more easily.^[38] A basic coconut oil soap is clear when melted and a bright white when hardened.^[39]

Engine feedstock

Coconut oil has been tested for use as a feedstock for biodiesel to be used as a diesel engine fuel. In this manner it can be applied to power generators and transport using diesel engines. Since straight coconut oil has a high gelling temperature (22–25 °C), a high viscosity, and a minimum combustion chamber temperature of 500 °C (932 °F) (to avoid polymerization of the fuel), coconut oil is typically transesterified to make biodiesel. Use of B100 (100% biodiesel) is only possible in temperate climates as the gel point is approximately 10 °C (50 °F). The oil needs to meet the Weihenstephan standard^[40] for pure vegetable oil used as a fuel otherwise moderate to severe damage from carbonisation and clogging will occur in an unmodified engine.

The Philippines, Vanuatu, Samoa, and several other tropical island countries are using coconut oil as an alternative fuel source to run automobiles, trucks, and buses, and to power generators.^[41] Coconut oil is currently used as a fuel for transport in the Philippines.^[42] Further research into the oil's potential as a fuel for electricity generation is being carried out in the islands of the Pacific.^[43]^[44] In the 1990s Bougainville conflict, islanders cut off from supplies due to a blockade used it to fuel their vehicles.^[45]

Engine lubricant

Coconut oil has been tested for use as an engine lubricant; the producer claims the oil reduces fuel consumption and smoke emissions, and allows the engine to run at a cooler temperature.^[46]

Transformer oil

Transformer oil acts as an insulating and cooling medium in transformers. The insulating oil fills up pores in fibrous insulation and also the gaps between the coil conductors and the spacing between the siding and the tank, and thus increases the dielectric strength of the insulation. A transformer in operation generates heat in the winding, and that heat is transferred to the oil via conduction. Heated oil then flows to the radiators by convection. Oil supplied from the radiators, being cooler, cools the winding. There are several important properties such as dielectric strength, flash point, viscosity, specific gravity and pour point and all of them have to be considered when qualifying an oil for use in transformers. Normally mineral oil is used, but coconut oil has been shown to possess all the properties needed to function as an environmentally friendly and economic replacement to mineral oil for this purpose.^[47]

Lighting

Before the advent of electrical lighting, coconut oil was the primary oil used for illumination in India and was exported as Cochin oil.^[4]

Herbicide

Acids derived from coconut oil can be used as herbicides, for a more environmentally friendly way of combating weeds. It is also considered unproblematic for people who have sensitivity to synthetic herbicides.^[48]

Personal uses

Cosmetics and skin treatments

Coconut oil is excellent as a skin moisturizer and softener. A study shows that extra virgin coconut oil is effective and safe when used as a moisturizer, with absence of adverse reactions.^[49] A study found that coconut oil helped prevent protein loss from the wet combing of hair when used for fourteen hours^[50] as a conditioner before washing the hair.^[50]

Sexual lubrication

There are widespread reports of the use of coconut oil as a sexual lubricant.^[51] Like other oil-based intimate lubricants, coconut oil should not be used with latex condoms.

References

^ U.G. Ohler, Coconut: Tree of Life, Kuene, 1984 Pg. 339
^ Grimwood, BE (1975). Coconut Palm Products – Their processing in developing countries. Rome. pp. 193–210. ISBN 9789251008539. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |publishers= ignored (|publisher= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^ Bourke, R. Michael and Tracy Harwood (Eds.). (2009). Food and Agriculture in Papua New Guinea. Australian National University. p. 327. ISBN 9781921536601.
^ ^a ^b Brady, George Stuart, Henry R. Clauser, and John A. Vaccari. (2002). Materials Handbook – An encyclopedia for managers, technical professionals, purchasing and production managers, technicians, and supervisors (15th edition). McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 250–251. ISBN 9780071360760.
^ Grimwood et al. 1975, p. 29.
^ Woodruff, Jasper Guy, Ph.D. (1970). Coconuts: Production, Processing, Products. Avi Publishing.
^ Foale, M. (2003). "The Coconut Odyssey: The Bounteous Possibilities of the Tree of Life" (pdf). Canberra: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. pp. 115–116.
^ McGlone OC, Canales A, Carter JV (1986). "Coconut oil extraction by a new enzymatic process". J Food Sci. 51: 695–7. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1986.tb13914.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ United States Department of Agriculture. (February 2011). "Oilseeds: World Markets and Trade" Table 03: Major Vegetable Oils: World Supply and Distribution (Commodity View)
^ Marina, A. M.; Che Man, Y. B.; Nazimah, S. A. H.; Amin, I. (2009). "Antioxidant capacity and phenolic acids of virgin coconut oil". International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition. 60: 114–123. doi:10.1080/09637480802549127. PMID 19115123.
^ U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2010). Oil, coconut. Retrieved April 14, 2011 from the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 23.
^ Codex Alimentarius. World Health Organization and Food and Agriculture Organization. (2009). Codex Standard for Named Vegetable Oils (Codex Stan 210-1999, Revision 3). Retrieved April 2, 2011.
^ Asian and Pacific Coconut Community
^ APCC Standards for Virgin Coconut Oil Asian and Pacific Coconut Community, Jakarta, Indonesia
^ Joint Statement on Philippine National Standard for Virgin Coconut Oil as food
^ Maloof, Rich. (c. 2009). Coconut Oil. MSN Health and Fitness.
^ "Nutrition Facts at a Glance - Nutrients: Saturated Fat". Food and Drug Administration. 2009-12-22. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
^ "Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2010" (PDF). Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
^ ^a ^b "American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada Offer Up-to-Date Guidance on Dietary Fat". American Dietetic Association. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
^ "Tropical Oils". American Heart Association. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
^ "Lower your cholesterol". National Health Service. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
^ ^a ^b Mensink, R. P.; Zock, P. L.; Kester, A. D.; Katan, M. B. (2003). "Effects of dietary fatty acids and carbohydrates on the ratio of serum total to HDL cholesterol and on serum lipids and apolipoproteins: a meta-analysis of 60 controlled trials". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 77 (5): 1146–1155. PMID 12716665.
^ Mozaffarian D, Micha R, Wallace S (2010). "Effects on Coronary Heart Disease of Increasing Polyunsaturated Fat in Place of Saturated Fat: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials". PLoS Medicine. 7 (3): 1–10. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000252. ISSN 1549-1277. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
^ ^a ^b Tarrago-Trani, MT; Phillips, KM; Lemar, LE; Holden, JM (2006). "New and existing oils and fats used in products with reduced trans-fatty acid content" (pdf). Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 106 (6): 867–80. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2006.03.010. PMID 16720128.
^ Kintanar, QL (1988). "Is coconut oil hypercholesterolemic and atherogenic? A focused review of the literature". Transactions of the National Academy of Science and Technology (Philippines). 10: 371–414.
^ Thormar, H; Isaacs, CE; Brown, HR; Barshatzky, MR; Pessolano, T (1987). "Inactivation of enveloped viruses and killing of cells by fatty acids and monoglycerides". Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy. 31 (1): 27–31. doi:10.1128/aac.31.1.27. PMC 174645. PMID 3032090.
^ Amarasiri, Wadl (2009). "Coconut fats". Ceylon Medical Journal. 51 (2). doi:10.4038/cmj.v51i2.1351.
^ Marina, AM (2009). "Virgin coconut oil: emerging functional food oil". Trends in Food Science & Technology. 20 (10): 481–487. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
^ Pillitteri, Adele. (2009). Maternal & Child Health Nursing – Care of the Childbearing & Childrearing Family (6th edition). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 1681. ISBN 9781582559995.
^ Feldmeier, H (2009). "Tungiasis and cutaneous larva migrans: unpleasant travel souvenirs". Medizinische Monatsschrift fur Pharmazeuten. 32 (12): 440–4. PMID 20088345.
^ Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy. (June 1, 2010). Coconut Allergy. Retrieved April 2, 2011.
^ Wolke, Robert L. (May 16, 2007). "Where There's Smoke, There's a Fryer". The Washington Post. Retrieved March 5, 2011.
^ Srilakshmi, B. (2003). Food Science (3rd edition). New Age International. p. 233. ISBN 9788122414813
^ Nutiva. (n.d.). Coconut Oil Recipes. Retrieved March 30, 2011.
^ Clark, Melissa. (March 1, 2011). Once a Villain, Coconut Oil Charms the Health Food World. The New York Times. Retrieved March 2, 2011.
^ Bach, André C. and Vigen K Babayan. (November 1982). Medium-chain triglycerides: an update. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 36: 950–962.
^ ‘Two Thumbs Down’ for Movie Theater Popcorn
^ Alsberg, Carl Lucas and Alonzo Englebert Taylor. (February 1928). The Fats and Oils – A General Overview (Fats and Oils Studies No. 1). Stanford University Press. p. 86.
^ Browning, Marie. (2003). 300 Handcrafted Soaps – Great Melt & Pour Projects. Sterling Publishing Company. p. 9. ISBN 9781402707971.
^ Weihenstephan vegetable oil fuel standard (German Rapeseed Fuel Standard)
^ In Vanuatu, A Proving Ground for Coconut Oil As An Alternative Fuel
^ Margolis, Jason. (December 13, 2006). Coconut fuel. PRI's The World. Retrieved April 10, 2011.
^ Bowry, Vincent, Chris Cheatham, Jan Cloin, Wolf Forstreuter, and Gilles Vaitilingom. (October 2005). CocoGen – Feasibility Study into the use of Coconut Oil Fuel in EPC Power Generation. EPC, UNDP Samoa. Retrieved April 21, 2011.
^ Mercer, Phil (2007-05-08). "Coconut oil powers island's cars". BBC. Retrieved 2011-04-21.
^ The Coconut Revolution: a documentary film
^ Romares-Sevilla, J (2008-01-17). "Davao-based firm sees expansion of bio-tech oil market". Sun.Star Superbalita Davao. Archived from the original on 2008-01-21. Retrieved 2008-07-14.
^ Coconut Oil As An Alternative To Transformer Oil
^ Roads and footpaths - weed control (from the Auckland City Council website. Accessed 2010-01-21.)
^ Agero AL, Verallo-Rowell VM (2004). "A randomized double-blind controlled trial comparing extra virgin coconut oil with mineral oil as a moisturizer for mild to moderate xerosis". Dermatitis. 15 (3): 109–16. PMID 15724344. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
^ ^a ^b "For the oil application, to each hair tress was applied 0.2 ml of oil (the quantity of oil normally applied by an Indian hair oil user). It was allowed to remain on the hair for at least 14 hr to simulate overnight application (the normal habit of the Indian consumer). These hair tresses were then subjected to both protein loss and WRI tests." p. 179 of Aarti S. Rele and R. B. Mohile: "Effect of mineral oil, sunflower oil, and coconut oil on prevention of hair damage", J. Cosmet. Sci., 54 175-192 (March/April 2003). Downloaded Sep 20, 2010.
^ Coconut Oil For Personal Lubrication