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Brachiosaurus
Temporal range: Late Jurassic–Early Cretaceous?
↓
Bronze cast of a B. altithorax specimen outside the Field Museum of Natural History
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Reptilia
Superorder:
Dinosauria
Order:
Saurischia
Suborder:
†Sauropodomorpha
Infraorder:
†Sauropoda
Family:
†Brachiosauridae
Genus:
†Brachiosaurus

Riggs, 1903
Species
  • B. altithorax Riggs, 1903 (type)

__________________________

invalid species

Brachiosaurus is a genus of sauropod dinosaur from the Jurassic Morrison Formation of North America. It was first found by Elmer Riggs in 1900, in the Grand River Canyon of western Colorado, in the United States. In 1903, Riggs first published on his findings and named the species Brachiosaurus altithorax, declaring it "the largest known dinosaur". Typical for a sauropod are the proportionally long neck, small skull, and large overall size of Brachiosaurus. Also, the limbs were pillar-like, and the hands columnar. Unusually, in contrast, are the brachiosaurid features: long forelimbs, which result in a steeply inclined trunk, making the overall body shape reminiscent of a modern giraffe. Also, while the tail is a typical long dinosaur tail, it is relatively short for a sauropod.

Much of what is known by laypeople about Brachiosaurus is in fact based on Giraffatitan brancai, a species of brachiosaurid dinosaur from the Tendaguru Formation of Tanzania described by German paleontologist Werner Janensch as a species of Brachiosaurus. Recent research shows that the differences between the type species of Brachiosaurus and the Tendaguru material are significant enough that the African material should be placed in a separate genus.

Description and paleobiology

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Like all sauropod dinosaurs, Brachiosaurus was a quadrupedal animal with a small skull, a long neck, a large trunk with a high-ellipsoid cross section, a long, muscular tail and slender, columnar limbs.[1] The skull had a robust, wide muzzle and thick jaw bones, with spoon–shaped teeth. As in Giraffatitan, there was an arch of bone over the snout and in front of the eyes that encircled the nasal opening, although this arch was not as large as in its relative.[2] Large air sacs connected to the lung system were present in the neck and trunk, invading the vertebrae and ribs, greatly reducing the overall density.[3][4] Unusually for a sauropod, the forelimbs were longer than the hind limbs. The humerus (upper arm bone) of Brachiosaurus was relatively lightly built for its size,[5] measuring 2.04 metres (6.7 ft) in length in the type specimen.[6] The femur (thigh bone) of the type specimen was only 2.03 metres (6.7 ft) long.[6] Unlike other sauropods, Brachiosaurus appears to have been slightly sprawled at the shoulder joint,[5] and the ribcage was unusually deep.[6] This led to the trunk being inclined, with the front much higher than the hips, and the neck exiting the trunk at a steep angle. Overall, this shape resembles a giraffe more than any other living animal.[7]

Size

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Because "Brachiosaurus" brancai (Giraffatitan) is known from much more complete material than B. altithorax, most size estimates for Brachiosaurus are actually for the African form. There is an additional element of uncertainty for North American Brachiosaurus because the most complete skeleton appears to have come from a subadult.[5] Over the years, the mass of B. altithorax has been estimated as 35.0 metric tons (38.6 short tons),[7] 43.9 metric tons (48.4 short tons),[8] and, most recently, 28.7 metric tons (31.6 short tons).[5] In the first and last cases, the authors also provided estimates for Giraffatitan, and found that genus to be somewhat lighter (31.5 metric tons (34.7 short tons) for Paul [1988][7] and 23.3 metric tons (25.7 short tons) for Taylor [2009][5]). The length of Brachiosaurus has been estimated at 26 metres (85 ft).[9]

Neck position

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In contrast to most other sauropods, brachiosaurids had an inclined back, due to their long forelimbs. Therefore, if the neck exited the body in a straight line, it already pointed upwards.[5][10] The exact angle is influenced by how the pectoral girdle is reconstructed, that is how the shoulder blades are placed on the ribcage.[10] The mobility of the neck was reconstructed as quite low by Stevens and Parrish,[10][10], while other researchers like Paul and Christian and Dzemski argued for more flexible necks.[11][12]

Feeding ecology

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Brachiosaurus is thought to have been a high browser, feeding on foliage well above the ground. Even if it did not hold its neck near vertical, and instead had a straighter neck, its head height may still have been over 9 metres (30 ft) above the ground.[8][2] It probably fed mostly on foliage above 5 metres (16 ft). However, this does not preclude the possibility that it also fed lower at times, between 3 to 5 metres (9.8 to 16.4 ft) up.[2] Its diet likely consisted of ginkgoes, conifers, tree ferns, and large cycads, with intake estimated at 200 to 400 kilograms (440 to 880 lb) of plant matter daily.[2] However, more recent studies estimate that ~240 kg of plant matter would have been sufficient to feed a 70 t sauropod,[13] so that Brachiosaurus may have required only about 120 kg of fodder a day. Brachiosaur feeding involved simple up–and–down jaw motion. The teeth were arranged to shear material as they closed, and were probably used to crop and/or nip vegetation.[14]

It has repeatedly been suggested, e.g. in the movie Jurassic Park, that Brachiosaurus could rear into a bipedal or tripodal (with tail support) pose to feed. However, a detailed, physical modelling-based analysis of sauropod rearing capabilities by Heinrich Mallison showed that while many sauropods could rear, the unusual brachiosaurid body shape and limb length ratio made them exceptionally ill suited for rearing. The forward position of the center of mass would have led to problems with stability, and required unreasonably large forces in the hips to obtain an upright posture. Brachiosaurus would also have gained relatively little from rearing (only 33% more feeding height), compared to other sauropods, in which a bipedal pose may have tripled the feeding height.[15]

Paleoecology

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With the removal of the East African Giraffatitan, Brachiosaurus is known only from the Morrison Formation of western North America.[5] The Morrison Formation is interpreted as a semiarid environment with distinct wet and dry seasons,[16][17] and flat floodplains.[16] Vegetation varied from gallery forests (river–lining forests in otherwise treeless settings) of conifers, tree ferns, and ferns, to fern savannas with rare trees.[18] Several other sauropod genera were present in the Morrison Formation, with differing body proportions and feeding adaptations.[8] Among these were Apatosaurus, Barosaurus, Camarasaurus, Diplodocus, Haplocanthosaurus, and Supersaurus.[8][19] Brachiosaurus was one of the less abundant Morrison Formation sauropods. In a survey of over 200 fossil localities, John Foster reported 12 specimens of the genus, comparable to Barosaurus (13) and Haplocanthosaurus (12), but far fewer than Apatosaurus (112), Camarasaurus (179), and Diplodocus (98).[8]

Metabolism

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Like all sauropods, Brachiosaurus was a homeothermic and endothermic animal, meaning that it was able to actively control its body temperature, producing the necessary heat through a high basic metabolic rate of its cells.[20]

In the past, Brachiosaurus has been used an example of a dinosaur for which endothermy (warm–bloodedness) is unlikely, because of the combination of great size (leading to overheating) and great caloric needs to fuel endothermy.[21] However, these calculations were based on wrong assumptions about the available cooling surfaces (the large air sacs were not known), and a grossly inflated body mass, so that both heat production was overestimated, and heat loss underestimated.[20] The large nasal arch has been postulated as an adaptation for cooling the brain, as a surface for evaporative cooling of the blood.[21] Again, the cooling via the air sacs was not known, and thus not taken into account. Furthermore, other similar sized sauropods had no comparable structure, which means that they could not have lived if the cooling via the nasal arch was necessary. Additionally, in proportion to the entire animal, the nasal arch is very small, and would thus have made only an insignificant conribution to heat loss. [citation needed] --> I know there is a paper but can't remember which <--

Discovery and history

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The genus Brachiosaurus, and type species B. altithorax, are based on a partial postcranial skeleton from Fruita, in the valley of the Colorado River of western Colorado.[22] This specimen was collected from rocks of the Brushy Basin Member of the Morrison Formation[23] in 1900 by Elmer S. Riggs and his crew from the Field Columbian Museum (now the Field Museum of Natural History) of Chicago.[6] It is currently cataloged as FMNH P 25107.[5] Riggs and company were working in the area as a result of favorable correspondence between Riggs and S. M. Bradbury, a dentist in nearby Grand Junction. In 1899 Riggs had sent inquiries to rural locations in the western United States concerning fossil finds, and Bradbury, an amateur collector himself, reported that dinosaur bones had been collected in the area since 1885.[22] It was Riggs' field assistant H. W. Menke who found FMNH P 25107,[6] on July 4, 1900, on a small hill later known as Riggs Hill.[22] Riggs published a short report in 1901, noting the unusual length of the humerus compared to the femur and the extreme overall size and the resulting giraffe-like proportions, as well as the lesser development of the tail, but did not publish a name for the new dinosaur. The titles of Riggs (1901) and (1903) suggested that the specimen was the largest known dinosaur.[24] Riggs followed his 1903 publication that named Brachiosaurus altithorax[6] with a more detailed description in a monograph in 1904.[25]

The Fruita skeleton was not the first discovery of Brachiosaurus bones, although it was the first to be recognized as belonging to a new and distinct animal. In 1883, a sauropod skull was found near Garden Park, Colorado, at Felch Quarry 1, and was sent to Othniel Charles Marsh (of "Bone Wars" fame).[5] Marsh incorporated the skull into his skeletal restoration of "Brontosaurus" (now Apatosaurus).[26][5] It eventually became part of the collections of the National Museum of Natural History, as USNM 5730.[5] In the 1970s, when Jack McIntosh and David Berman were working on the issue of the true skull of Apatosaurus, they reevaluated the Garden Park skull as more similar to Camarasaurus.[27] It was described and recognized as a Brachiosaurus skull in 1998 by Kenneth Carpenter and Virginia Tidwell, intermediate in form between Camarasaurus and Giraffatitan brancai (then still considered to be B. brancai).[28] Because there are no overlapping parts between this skull and FMNH P 25107, it cannot be confidently assigned to a species,[28][5] so it is classified as Brachiosaurus sp.[28]

Additional discoveries of Brachiosaurus material in North America have been uncommon and consist of a handful of bones. Material has been described from Colorado,[29][30][31][5] Oklahoma,[32][5] Utah,[29][5] and Wyoming,[33][5] and undescribed material has been mentioned from several other sites.[23][5] One of these specimens, a shoulder blade from Dry Mesa Quarry, Colorado, is one of the specimens at the center of the Supersaurus/Ultrasauros issue of the 1980s and 1990s. In 1985, James A. Jensen described disarticulated sauropod remains from the quarry as belonging to several taxa, including the new genera Supersaurus and Ultrasaurus,[34] the latter renamed Ultrasauros shortly thereafter because another sauropod already had the name.[35] Later study showed that the "ultrasaur" material mostly belonged to Supersaurus, although the shoulder blade did not. Because the holotype of Ultrasauros, a back vertebra, was one of the specimens that was actually from Supersaurus, the name Ultrasauros is a synonym of Supersaurus. The shoulder blade is now assigned to Brachiosaurus, but the species is uncertain.[30][5] In addition, the Dry Mesa "ultrasaur" was not as large as had been thought; the dimensions of the shoulder's coracoid bone indicate that the animal was smaller than Riggs' original specimen of Brachiosaurus.[5]

Material

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Genoype

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FMNH P 25107, the holotype of both the genus Brachiosaurus and the species B. altithorax, consists of the right humerus (upper arm bone), the right femur (thigh bone), the right ilium (a hip bone), the right coracoid (a shoulder bone), the sacrum (fused vertebrae of the hip), the last seven thoracic (trunk) and two caudal (tail) vertebrae, and a number of ribs.[24][6][5] Riggs described the coracoid as from the left side of the body,[24][6][25] but restudy has shown it to be a right coracoid.[5]

Type specimens of assigned species

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  • B. altithorax: same as for the genus.
  • "B." atalaiensis: Originally described by de Lapparent and Zbyszewski,[36] this material's reference to Brachiosaurus was doubted by Upchurch, Barret and Dodson,[1] who listed it as an unnamed brachiosaurid, and placed in its own genus Lusotitan by Antunes and Mateus,[37]. The low neural spines, the prominent deltopectoral crest of the humerus (a muscle attachment site on the upper arm bone), the elongated humerus (very long and slender), and the longitudinal axis of the ilium (a hip bone) tilted upward indicate that Lusotitan is a brachiosaurid.[37]
  • "B." nougaredi: This species is known from fragmentary remains discovered in eastern Algeria, in the Sahara Desert. The present type material consists of a sacrum and some of the left metacarpals and phalanges. Found at the discovery site but not collected were partial bones of the left forearm, wrist bones, a right shin bone, and fragments that may have come from metatarsals.[38] de Lapparent, who described and named the material in 1960, reported the discovery locality as being in the Late Jurassic–age Taouratine Series (he assigned the rocks this age in part because of the presumed presence of Brachiosaurus),[38] but more recent review assigns it to the "Continental intercalaire," which is considered to be of Albian age (late Early Cretaceous, significantly younger).[1] This material was found disjointed over an area of several hundred meters,[38] and may not belong to one individual or even one species.[citation needed] Upchurch, Barrett and Dodson (2004) doubted its assignment to Brachiosaurus, and listed it as an unnamed brachiosaurid.[1] The sacrum is of notable size, with a length of 130 centimetres (51 in) for four vertebrae compared to 95 centimetres (37 in) for five vertebrae in B. altithorax; other bones are not of unusual size in comparison to B. altithorax or Giraffatitan brancai.[38]
  • "B." brancai: Janensch based his description on "Skelett S" (skeleton S) from Tendaguru,[39] but later realized that it comprised two partial individuals S I and S II.[40] He did not designate them as a syntype series, nor specify a lectotype, and Taylor proposed the larger and more complete S II (MB.R.2181) as the lectotype.[5] It includes, among other bones, several dorsal (trunk) vertebrae, the left scapula (shoulder blade), both coracoids (shoulder bones), both sternals (breastbones), both humeri (upper arm bones), both ulna and radii (lower arm bones), a right hand, a partial left hand, both pubes (a hip bone) and the right femur (thigh bone), tibia and fibula (shank bones). A re-assessment of the relation between the African and American brachiosaur material indicates that a separate generic name is warranted for the Tendaguru material, meaning that it now is considered to belong to Giraffatitan.[11][5]
  • "B." fraasii: erected by Janensch in 1914, but later synonomized the species with "B." brancai, this material now belongs to Giraffatitan.[41]

Referred material

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Taylor (2009) lists a number of specimens referred to Brachiosaurus. These include some material, e.g., a humerus (upper arm bone) from Potter Creek and some Dry Mesa material (the latter partly described as Ultrasauros by Jensen), that are either clearly not brachiosaurids, or at least not clearly referable to Brachiosaurus.[5] In contrast, a cervical (neck) vertebra and the skull mentioned above may belong to either B. altithorax or an as yet unknown brachiosaurid from North America.[5] The cervical was found near Jensen, Utah, by Jensen,[42] and – if it belongs to Brachiosaurus – is one of a handful of neck vertebrae known for American brachiosaurids.[5] There is no unambiguous material of the skull, neck, anterior dorsal (forward trunk) region, distal (lower) limbs or feet.[5]

There was ample material referred to "B." brancai in the collections of the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin, some of which was destroyed during World War II. Other material was transferred to other institution throughout Germany, some of which was also destroyed. Additional specimens are likely among the material collected by the British Museum of Natural History's Tendaguru expedition.[43] Much or all of this material probably belongs to Giraffatitan, although some may represent a new brachiosaurid.Cite error: The <ref> tag has too many names (see the help page).

Taxonomy

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<<taxonomic history goes here>>


Etymology

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Riggs derived the genus name from the Greek brachion/βραχιων meaning "arm" and sauros/σαυρος meaning "lizard", because he realized that the length of the arms was unusual for a sauropod.[6] The species epithet "altithorax" was chosen because of the unusually deep and wide chest cavity, from Latin altus meaning "deep" and Greek thorax/θώραξ (Latin thorax), meaning "breastplate, cuirass, corslet".[44]

Separation from Giraffatitan

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When describing the brachiosaurid material from Tendaguru in 1914, Janensch listed a number of differences and commonalities between them and B. altithorax.[39] In three further publications in 1929,[41] 1950[45] and 1961[46] Janensch compared the two species in more detail, all in all listing 13 putative shared characters.[5] Of these, however, only four appear to be valid, while six pertain to more inclusive groups than Brachiosauridae, and the rest are either difficult to assess or refer to material that is not Brachiosaurus.[5]

In 1988, Gregory Paul published a new reconstruction drawing of the skeleton of "B." brancai, highlighting a number of differences in proportion between the it and B. altithorax. Chief among them is a difference in the way the trunk vertebrae vary: they are fairly uniform in B. altithorax, but vary widely in the African material. Paul believed that the limb and girdle elements of both species were very similar, and therefore suggested to separate them not at genus, but only at subgenus level.[11]

Giraffatitan was raised to genus level by Olshevsky, without any further analysis.[35] A detailed study of all material, including the limb and girdle bones, by Michael Taylor in 2009 found that there are significant differences between Brachiosaurus altithorax and the Tendaguru material in all elements known from both species. Taylor found 26 distinct osteological (bone-based) characters, a larger difference than that between, e.g., Diplodocus and Barosaurus, and therefore argued that the African material should be placed in its own genus Giraffatitan, as G. brancai.[5]

Classification

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Brachiosaurus is the namesake genus of Brachiosauridae.[47] Over the years a number of sauropods have been assigned to Brachiosauridae, such as Astrodon, Bothriospondylus, Dinodocus, Pelorosaurus, Pleurocoelus, and Ultrasaurus,[48] but most of these are currently regarded as dubious or of uncertain placement.[1] A phylogenetic analysis of sauropods published in the description of Abydosaurus found that genus to form a clade with Brachiosaurus and Giraffatitan (included in Brachiosaurus).[49] Related genera include Cedarosaurus, Lusotitan (formerly Brachiosaurus atalaiensis), and Sauroposeidon.[1]

Taphonomy

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References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f Cite error: The named reference upchurch&al2004 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  2. ^ a b c d Cite error: The named reference foster2007b was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  3. ^ Cite error: The named reference wedel2003a was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  4. ^ Cite error: The named reference wedel2003b was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad Cite error: The named reference taylor2009 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i Cite error: The named reference riggs1903 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  7. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference Paul1988 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  8. ^ a b c d e Cite error: The named reference foster2003 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  9. ^ Cite error: The named reference holtz2008 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  10. ^ a b c d Cite error: The named reference stevensparrishXXXX was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  11. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference paul1988 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  12. ^ Cite error: The named reference dzemskichristian2007 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  13. ^ Cite error: The named reference hummel&al2008 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  14. ^ Cite error: The named reference bar&up2005 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  15. ^ Cite error: The named reference mallisonsaubook2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  16. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference russell1989 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  17. ^ Cite error: The named reference engelmann&al04 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  18. ^ Cite error: The named reference carpenter2006 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  19. ^ Cite error: The named reference Dchure&al2006 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  20. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference sander&al2010 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  21. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference russell1987b was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  22. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference glut was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  23. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference turner&peterson1999 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  24. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference riggs1901 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  25. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference riggs1904 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  26. ^ Cite error: The named reference marsh1891 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  27. ^ Cite error: The named reference mcintosh&berman1975 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  28. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference carp&tid1998 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  29. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Jjenson1987 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  30. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference curtice&al1996 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  31. ^ Cite error: The named reference curt&stad2001 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
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  34. ^ Cite error: The named reference jenson1985 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  35. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference olshevsky1991 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  36. ^ Cite error: The named reference lapp&zby1957 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  37. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference antunes&mateus2003 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  38. ^ a b c d Cite error: The named reference lapparent1960 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  39. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference janensch1914 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  40. ^ Cite error: The named reference janensch1928 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  41. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference janensch1929 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
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  43. ^ Cite error: The named reference maier2003 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  44. ^ Cite error: The named reference thoraxdict was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  45. ^ Cite error: The named reference janensch1950 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  46. ^ Cite error: The named reference janensch1961 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
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<<will go here later>>

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Look up Brachiosaurus in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Brachiosaurus.

Category:Brachiosaurs Category:Cretaceous dinosaurs Category:Dinosaurs of Africa Category:Dinosaurs of North America Category:Jurassic dinosaurs Category:Morrison fauna

br:Brakiosaor bg:Брахиозаври ca:Braquiosaure cs:Brachiosaurus da:Brachiosaurus de:Brachiosaurus es:Brachiosaurus eo:Braĥiosaŭro fa:براکیوسور fr:Brachiosaurus gl:Brachiosaurus ko:브라키오사우루스 hr:Brahiosaur it:Brachiosaurus altithorax he:ברכיוזאור lt:Brachiozauras hu:Brachiosaurus ml:ബ്രാക്കിയോസോറസ്‌ ms:Brachiosaurus nl:Brachiosaurus ja:ブラキオサウルス no:Brachiosaurus nn:Brachiosaurus pl:Brachiozaur pt:Braquiossauro ro:Brachiosaurus ru:Брахиозавр simple:Brachiosaurus sk:Brachiosaurus sr:Брахиосаур fi:Brachiosaurus sv:Brachiosaurus tl:Brachiosaurus tr:Brachiosaurus uk:Брахіозавр vi:Brachiosaurus bat-smg:Brakiozaurs zh:腕龍

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pics

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Please keep the pics here until the text is mostly done, then they can be placed appropriately.

Elmer S. Riggs' assistant lying by a Brachiosaurus altithorax humerus during the excavation in 1900
Riggs and H.W. Menke working on Brachiosaurus altithorax bones
Front limb bone (humerus)
Mounted skeleton in O'Hare International Airport
Othneil Charles Marsh's 1891 restoration of "Brontosaurus" (Apatosaurus) incorporated Brachiosaurus skull material.

scientific refs

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properly formatted refs go here for easier editing until the text is ready for the main page. Please sort alphabetically by first author! Please add any and all Brachiosaurus-related refs you can find! Please keep refs that are not actually used for now; they may be used later and it saves a lot of typing or c&p if they can be found here!

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non-sci refs

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[60] [61] [62] [63] [64] [65] [66]

  1. ^ Antunes, M. (2003). "Dinosaurs of Portugal". Comptes rendus. Palévol. 2 (1): 77–95. doi:10.1016/S1631-0683(03)00003-4. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ Bader, K.S. (2009). "Application of forensic science techniques to trace fossils on dinosaur bones from a quarry in the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation, northeastern Wyoming". Palaios. 24 (3): 140–158. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ Bailey, J.B. (1997). "Neural spine elongation in dinosaurs: Sailbacks or buffalo-backs?" Journal of Paleontology, 71(6): 1124-1146.
  4. ^ Barrett, Paul M. (2005). "Sauropodomorph diversity through time". The Sauropods: Evolution and Paleobiology. Berkeley, CA: University of California. pp. 125–156. ISBN 0-520-24623-3. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  5. ^ Bonnan, M.F. (2004). "First occurrence of Brachiosaurus (Dinosauria, Sauropoda) from the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation of Oklahoma". PaleoBios. 24 (2): 12–21. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ Carpenter, K. (2006). "Biggest of the big: a critical re-evaluation of the mega-sauropod Amphicoelias fragillimus". Paleontology and Geology of the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation. New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin, 36. Albuquerque, New Mexico: New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science. pp. 131–138. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
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