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Criticism of Twelver Shia Islam

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Criticism of Twelver Shia Islam dates from the initial ideological rift among early Muslims that led to the two primary denominations of Islam, the Sunnis and the Shias. The question of succession to Muhammad in Islam, the nature of the Imamate, the status of the twelfth Shia Imam, and other areas in which Shia Islam differs from Sunni Islam have been criticized by Sunni scholars, even though there is no disagreement between the two sects regarding the centrality of the Quran, Muhammad, and many other doctrinal, theological and ritual matters.[1] Shia commentators such as Musa al-Musawi and Ali Shariati have themselves, in their attempts to reform the faith, criticized practices and beliefs which have become prevalent in the Twelver Shia community.[2]

Image veneration

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Further information: Aniconism in Islam
Common representations of some Imams

Sunnis are particularly critical of the "love of visual imagery evident in Shia popular devotionalism" and regularly cite this characteristic (often referred to as 'Shia iconography')[3][4] as proof of Shia deviance or heresy.[5]

Occultation

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Main article: Occultation (Islam)
Jamkaran in Iran, supposed site of a historical appearance of Muhammad al-Mahdi

In the tradition of Twelver Shia Islam, the twelfth and final Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, who is also considered by Twelver Shia to be the prophesied redeemer of Islam known as the Mahdi, went into ghaybah ("occultation") in 873 CE. However, this belief has long been criticized by Sunni scholars who "often speculate that the twelfth Imam never existed, but was a myth designed to keep the Shia cause alive."[6] According to Western scholar Robert Gleave, the doctrine of the 12th Imam's occultation emerged as the most theologically coherent explanation following the death of the 11th Imam, al-Hasan al-Askari, when alternative theories about the succession were not widely accepted. This belief subsequently became a foundational aspect of Twelver Shia orthodoxy.[7] According to Bernard Lewis, the concept of the Imam's occultation and eventual return became a defining doctrine in Shia Islam after the suppression of various uprisings and the mysterious disappearances of their leaders. Over time, with each leader who vanished without returning, the belief in the Imam's concealment and promised return became increasingly detailed and integral to Shia thought.[8]

In a Hadith upon whose authenticity Shias and Sunnis agree, Muhammad had said, "If there were to remain in the life of the world but one day, God would prolong that day until He sends in it a man from my community and my household. His name will be the same as my name. He will fill the earth with equity and justice as it was filled with oppression and tyranny."[9][a][10][11] However, the majority of Sunnis do not consider the son of eleventh Imam as the promised Mahdi. Shias claim the only possible occasion that the son of eleventh Imam is said to have made a public appearance was at the time of his death, then as a child the boy was seen no more.[10][11] His birth, Shia says, like the case of the prophet Moses, was concealed due to the difficulties of the time, and because of the belief that he was the promised Mahdi, the caliphs of the time had decided definitely to put an end to the Imamate in Shi'ism once and for all.[12]

Nikah mut'ah

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Nikah mut‘ah (lit. "pleasure marriage"), is a fixed-term marriage sometimes practiced in Twelver Shia Islam. The duration of this type of marriage is fixed at its inception and is then automatically dissolved upon completion of its term. For this reason, nikah mut‘ah has been widely criticised as the religious cover and legalization of prostitution.[13][14][15][16] The Christian missionary Thomas Patrick Hughes criticized Mut'ah as allowing the continuation of "one of the abominable practices of ancient Arabia."[17] Western writers like Zeyno Baran,[18] and Elena Andreeva[19] have written that this kind of marriage is prostitution. According to Shahla Haeri, before the 1979 revolution, the secular Iranian middle classes viewed temporary marriage as a form of prostitution legitimized by the religious establishment, describing it as having been given a 'religious cover.'[20]

All Muslim legal schools acknowledge that mutʿah was practiced during the time of Prophet Muhammad and Abu Bakr. While most Sunni Muslims believe that Muhammad later prohibited the practice and therefore deem it akin to prostitution, making it forbidden among Sunnis, Shias maintain that it was banned by Umar ibn Khattab, the second caliph, and view mutʿah as a valid practice, considering it a safeguard against prostitution or in situations where regular marriage is not feasible. [21] Shias also state that its legitimated by Quran.4:24.[22][23][24]

Shia have systematically contested the criticism that it is a cover for prostitution, and argue their rationales regarding the legal uniqueness of temporary marriage, which distinguishes Mut'ah ideologically from prostitution.[22][25] Children born of temporary marriages are considered legitimate, and have equal status in law with their siblings born of permanent marriages, and do inherit from both parents. The bride must not be married, she must attain the permission of her wali if she has never been married before, she must be Muslim or belong to Ahl al-Kitab (People of the Book), she should be chaste, must not be a known adulterer, and she can only independently do this if she is Islamically a non-virgin or she has no wali (Islamic legal guardian). At the end of the contract, the marriage ends and the wife must undergo iddah, a period of abstinence from marriage (and thus, sexual intercourse). The iddah is intended to give paternal certainty to any children should the wife become pregnant during the temporary marriage contract. Some Shia scholars also view Mut'ah as a means of eradicating prostitution from society.[26]

Taqiyya (dissimulation)

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See also: Persecution of Shias by the Islamic State and Persecution of Kashmiri Shias

Taqiyyah is a Shi'ite practice under which it is permissible to hide one's faith and lie in order to preserve faith but only when there is a danger for one's life. The Shia have been criticised for this practice, an act deemed against the virtues of bravery and courage.[27] Critics argue that the Twelvers have taken dissimulation far beyond life-threatening situations and have allowed its use in any scenario that is judged to benefit the continuation or propagation of the Twelver creed, as is emphasized by the "celebrated" reputed saying of the 6th Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq, "[t]aqiyyah is my religion and the religion of my forefathers";[28][29] along with his other often quoted saying from Kitab al-Kafi: "Nine tenths of faith is taqiyya."[30][31][32][33] The practice is widely criticized by Sunni Muslims as indicative of the problems that they face when interacting with Shi'ites.[34] According to Patricia Crone, Twelvers even extended the use of taqiyya "to protect their secret wisdom from exposure to the uncomprehending masses (including their own co-religionists), who might pervert it or denounce it as heretical."[35] This view has been supported by Faysal Noor in his book Taqiyyah: The Other Face. [36]

Such a doctrine became important where Shi'a communities lived under oppression and were stigmatised under Sunni authority in areas where Sunnis were the majority. Besides, the practice of concealing one's beliefs in dangerous circumstances originates in the Qur'an, which deems blameless those who disguise their beliefs in such cases.[37][38] The practice of taqiyya in difficult circumstances is considered legitimate by Muslims of various sects. Sunni and Shia commentators alike observe that verse 16:106 refers to the case of 'Ammar b. Yasir, who was forced to renounce his beliefs under physical duress and torture.[39] This practice was emphasized in Shia Islam whereby adherents may conceal their religion when they are under threat, persecution, or compulsion.[40] Taqiyya was developed to protect Shia who were usually in minority and under pressure. In the Shia view, taqiyya is lawful in situations where there is overwhelming danger of loss of life or property and where no danger to religion would occur thereby.[41] Shia commentators have argued that taqiyya has precedents from the time of Muhammad, including the story of Ammar ibn Yasir, Such commentators argue that to not avoid certain death is illogical, and that dissimulation is permissible under various circumstances, such as to preserve life, to protect the chastity of women, or avoid destitution.[27]

Disrespect to Abu Bakr and Umar

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One allegation commonly leveled against the Twelvers is that they disrespect two of the Sunni Caliphs Umar and Abu Bakr, who supported Muḥammad, as per Sunni belief,[42] during the early days of the Islamic Ummah, but whom later betrayed The Prophet after his death and his household (Ahl al Bayt), as per Shi'ite belief.[43] Such Shi'ite practices include the recited Dua Sanamain Quraish, which calls God's curse on the first two Sunni caliphs following Muhammad's death, Abu Bakr and Umar. Following the Safavid empire's conversion to the Shia sect of Islam, the first three caliphs, whom according to shia usurped Ali's rightful succession as first Caliph after The Prophet's death, were cursed during Friday sermons.[44]

As Sunni scholar Shaykh Saleh Al-Fawzan summarises the views of the Rafidis as compared to the Nasibis:

The Raafidis are the opposite: they love the Prophet's family (ahl al-bayt) - or so they claim, but they hate the Saahaaba, whom they curse, denounce as kaafirs, and criticize.[45]

During the 1960s, when an incipient ecumenical movement called for the unification of Shia and Sunni Islam, religious writers cited this "disrespect" for the Sahabah as a barrier to unification. In the 1980s and 1990s, three major religious writers in Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Pakistan again cited this argument, noting that until all "profanity" against the Sahabah was abandoned, dialogue with Shia scholars could not begin.[46]

In 2010, Ali Khamenei issued a fatwa which bans any insult to the companions of Muhammad, as well as his wives. The fatwa was issued in an effort to reconcile legal, social, and political disagreements between Sunni and Shia.[47][48][49] Similar fatwas were issued from Ali al-Sistani and other[who?] Shiite Marja'.[50][51][52][53]

However, some Shi'ite scholars in the past, such as Shaykh Tusi,[54] Muhammad Baqir Majlisi,[55] Sadiq Hussaini Shirazi, Hossein Vahid Khorasani,[56][57] Mohammad Jamil Hammoud al-Amili,[58] Yasser Al-Habib[citation needed], cursed and/or allowed for disrespecting of the figures revered by the Sunnis.

Imamate

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Three of the Twelve Imams, held by the Twelver Shia to be God's representatives on Earth, were less than ten years old when they assumed the undisputed and exclusive leadership of the Twelver Shi'ite community. The 9th Imam, Muhammad al-Jawad, was 7+1⁄2 years old at the time he assumed the Imamate; the 10th Imam, Ali al-Hadi, was between 6.5 and 8.5 years, and the 12th and final Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, was 4+1⁄2 years old. Pakistani Islamic scholar and polemicist Ehsan Elahi Zaheer argues against the possibility of these personalities assuming the leadership of the Imamate at such young ages.[59] Wilferd Madelung notes, however, that in Shi'ite belief, the knowledge of an Imam comes from "inspiration, not acquisition", and thus that even a young Imam is not considered unprepared, receiving revelation upon the death of his predecessor.[60]

As for the ninth Imam, the Shia could not help asking from his father, the eighth Imam whether a child at that age could take on such a responsibility if something happened to Imam Ali al-Ridha; and al-Ridha used to illustrate the story of Jesus who was even younger when he had become the prophet of his time[b][12][61] John the Baptist was also a child when he was given wisdom. His reading and understanding of the scriptures, surpassed even that of the greatest scholars of the time.[c][62]

Shia'ites state that their account of Al-Ma'mun's first meeting with Muhammad al-Jawad shows that wisdom is given to the Twelve Imams.[d] After which the Caliph called together a great gathering in which all kinds of questions were asked from the young Imam, who astonished them all with his judgment and learning. Then al-Ma'mun declared formally that he gave him his daughter in marriage thereby.[12]

The Twelver Imamah doctrine is not shared by the majority of Sunni Muslims. The Syrian Salafi mufti Ibn Taymiyyah (d. 728 AH/1328 AD) composed a long refutation of it in his Minhaj as-Sunnah an-Nabawiyyah.[63] Numerous Shia scholars[64][65] have reported the concept of Imamah as being in the Qur’an; Usama al-Altar,[66] Moustafa al-Qazwini.[67]

Twelver Shi'ism has also been criticized for supposedly exaggerating the holiness and infallibility of its Imams. Al-Kulayni in al-Kafi claims that the Imams know when they die and they do not die unless by their own choice, they know everything in the past and in the future and every time when God informs Muhammad, He orders him to inform Ali too. In Islamic Government Khomeini writes: "Amongst the necessities in our doctrine is that our Imams have a dignity which no favored angel nor sent prophet could ever reach. As it has been narrated, the Imams were lights under the shadow of the throne before creating this world."[68] According to critics this purity is close to that of the prophet Muhammad, if not quite on the same level, and reflects excessiveness of view.[69] Shia Islam has been criticised for magnifying the role of the Imams alongside, or even above, that of Muhammad.[70][71]

Both Shia and Sunni are in agreement over the two functions of prophet-hood: to reveal God's law to men, and to guide men toward God. However, while Sunnis believe that both have come to an end with the death of Muhammad, Shi'ites believe that whereas legislation ended, the function of guiding and "explaining divine law continued through the line of Imams."[72] In Shi'ite theology, thus, God does not guide via authoritative texts (i.e. the Qur'an and Hadith) only but also guides through some specially equipped individuals known as Imams.[73] This constitution, Shi'ites say, is not limited to Islam, but each great messenger of God had two covenants, one concerning the next prophet who would eventually come, and one regarding the immediate successor, the Imam.[74] For example, Sam was an Imam after Noah, Ishmael was an Imam after Abraham, Aaron or Joshua after Moses, Simon, John and all the disciples after Jesus, and Ali and his descendants after Muhammad.[75] It is narrated from the sixth Imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq, "where there to remain on the earth but two men, one of them would be the proof of God".[76] The difference between apostles (Rasuls), the prophets (Nabi) and the Imams, thus, is described as follows: "Rasul sees and hears the angel in awakeness and sleep. Nabi hears the angel and sees him while asleep, but does not see him while awake though hears the speech. Imam (muhaddith) is the one who hears the angel in awakeness while does not see him in awakeness or sleep."[77] According to Shia, the status and authority attributed to Imams will be senseless if they are prone to the same weakness found in general people.[73] God must assign someone similar to prophet in his attributes and Ismah as his successor to guide the people and to interpret the Quran.[78][79]

Shi'ites state their sources state that the Ahl al-Bayt, which are described purified of sin in the verse of purification, are Ahl al-Kisa, involving only specific members of the Prophet's family,[e][80][81][65] and Shias claim this as an argument for their infallibility.[65]

Fatimah's divine revelations

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According to some Twelver Shia scholars, Muhammad's daughter Fatimah received divine revelations after her father's death. During the 75 days that Fatimah had contact and communication with Gabriel, her husband Ali wrote down and recorded the revelations that were made to Fatimah which she dictated to him, to form the Book of Fatimah.[82]

Sunnis argue that Fatimah never received divine revelations from Allah.[83] According to the Twelver Shi'ite fifth Imam, however, this kind of revelation is not the revelation of prophethood but rather like the inspiration (ilham) which came to Mary (mother of Jesus),[f] the mother of Moses[g] and to the bee.[h][84]

Khums

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Main article: Khums

Khums is a tax to pay one-fifth of Muslims' acquired wealth from certain sources toward specified causes. It is treated differently in Shi'ite and Sunni Islam.[85] In Sunni Islam tradition, the scope of khums tax has been the spoils of war, while according to Twelver religious practice, Khums is an annual taxation on 20% of all profits. This wealth is collected and managed by Shi'ite religious leaders. However, according to scholars such as Musa al-Musawi, the modern development of the practice of collecting khums exclusively by Shia religious leaders, especially the Sayyid clerical elite, is simply a case of the usurpation of the place of the hidden Imam Mahdi, and as a way of enriching the clerical class.[86][87][88]

Khums, according to Shiah, is divided into two portions. One portion went to the descendants of Muhammad, the other portion was divided equally and one part given to Imam and clergy, while the other part went to the orphaned and poor Muslims.[89] Khums became a major source of income and financial independence of the clergy in Shi'ite regions.[90] Shi'ites justify the practice of khums by the fact that unlike Sunni religious leaders, non-Iranian Shi'ite ones, are not state sponsored and supported in their mission. For example, Turkish "Presidency of Religious Affairs" only trains and employs all of Turkey's Sunni imams, as well as administers only Sunni worshiping places, despite the fact that Shias make up approximately 5% of Turkish citizens, and on non-voluntary basis, participate in the financing of the Sunni mosques and the salaries of Sunni imams, while their places of worship, which are not officially recognized by the State, do not receive any funding.[91]

Three prayer times per day

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While Sunnis have 5 salat (prayer) sessions per day, Twelvers can opt to pray the 5 daily prayers with only 3 prayer times per day by doubling their prayers on 2 occasions[92][93][94]—combining the 2nd prayer with the 3rd and the 4th prayer with the 5th.[95][96] However, Sunnis argue this very practice defeats the purpose of having 5 distinct prayers, since God ordered 5 prayers for 5 separate times of the day rather than 5 prayers for 3 separate times of the day and that Shia have misrepresented the ambiguity of the issue in the Quran for their own convenience.[97][98] Twelvers extract this ruling from the two most important sources of jurisprudence which are the Quran, which only mentions 3 times for prayer,[99] and the Sunnah of the Messenger Muhammad who was praying this way, as it is also reported by Sunni sources as permissible distinctly during travel,[100][101][102][103][104][105][excessive citations] thus they believe this backs their claims accepted within a Sunni point of view. It is reported from the hadith that the Messenger did this so that no one among his Ummah should be put to [unnecessary] hardship. In the Sunni tradition this usually refers to people in long journey or ill health or any other hardship rather than an arbitrary decision on the part of the worshipper regardless of hardship.[106] Shias believe this is enough to reject any accusation of not basing their actions from Quran and Traditions.[107]

Rejection of predestination

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Main article: Bada'

Most contemporary Twelvers are said to reject predestination.[108][109][110][111] This has led to Sunni criticism of Twelvers, along with their associated belief in Bada' (showing hidden God's will), as being deniers of God's complete sovereignty, and as being imitators of the Mu'tazila school of Islamic theology (as per Sunni sayings)[112][113]

However some academics insist that Bada' is not rejection of predestination.[114]

Shia states that matters relating to the human destiny is of two kinds: definite and indefinite; to explain the definitive one, Shia argues that God has definite power over the whole of existence, however, whenever He wills, He can replace a given destiny with another one; and that is what is called indefinite destiny. Some of these changes of destiny, thus, are brought about by man himself, who can through his free will, his decisions, and his way of life—lay the groundwork for a change in his destiny as pointed out in the verses: Truly, God will not change the condition of a people as long as they do not change their state themselves.[i] Both types of destinies, however, are contained within God's foreknowledge, Shia argues, so that there could be no sort of change (Bada) concerning His knowledge. So the first type of destiny does not mean a limitation of God's power; since God, in contrast to the belief of Jews who says ‘the hand of God is tied’ asserts: Nay, His hands are spread out wide ....[j] So God has the power to change everything he wills and God's creativity is continuous. Accordingly, as Sobhani puts it, "all groups in Islam regard "bada" as a tenet of the faith, even if not all actually use the term."[115]

Corruption of the Quran

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Main article: Shia view of the Quran

Twelvers are often criticised by Sunnis for believing that the Quran was altered by the Sahaba (companions of Muhammad). Groups such as the Deobandis accuse Twelvers of believing that the complete version of the original Quran is in the possession of their 12th Imam. Twelvers are also accused of believing that the present Quran is omitted of the verses which support the Imamate of Ali because Caliph Uthman removed them during his compilation of the book — noting the incompatibility of the belief that the codification and propagation of the Quran was truthfully undertaken by the Sahaba, who, in Shi'ite tradition, represent the earliest people to take the Caliphate from its rightful claimants and to have corrupted the religion of Islam. As a result, such Sunni groups reject the Shi'ite defense that they believe in the same Quran as Sunnis, accusing Shi'ites of lying in line with their practice of taqiyyah so as not to expose themselves to the certain Sunni backlash.[116][117]

Most of Shi'ites nowadays believe that nothing have been omitted or added to the Quran, however, traces of earlier views can be found in some books of Shi'ite ahadith like Bihar al-Anwar.[118] The contemporary Shi'ite scholar Abu al-Qasim al-Khoei states that even if the Book of Ali (a copy of Quran written by Ali containing Ali's commentary, which sometimes is called the Book of Ali)[119] incorporated additions that are not part of the existing Quran, this does not mean that these additions comprised parts of the Quran, and have been dropped from it due to alteration. Rather, these additions were interpretations or explanations of what God was saying, or were in the form of revelations from God, explaining the intention of the verses in the Quran. These additions were not part of the Quran and not part of what the Messenger of God was commanded to convey to the Muslim community.[120]

Mourning of Muharram and Karbala

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Shia pilgrims gather around the shrine of Husayn in Karbala, Iraq

Twelvers have been criticised for the practice of Tatbir (a form of self-flagellation) during Ashura, the observation of the martyrdom of Husayn, traditionally accompanied by acts of ritual self-harm, which is often described as barbaric.[121][122] The practice is contested among Shi'ite clerics: while traditionalist clerics allow believers to indulge in Tatbir, modernist clerics deem it not to be permissible because it is considered as self-damage and haram in Islam.[123] Suffering and cutting the body with knives or chains was banned by the Shi'ite marja Ali Khamenei, Supreme Leader of Iran and by Hezbollah in Lebanon.[124] Khamenei issued a fatwa on 14 June 1994 banning this practice. He considered it irreligious and not suitable for good Muslims.[46]

Salafi Sunni scholars, such as Ibn Taymiyyah and Abd al-Aziz ibn Baz, have expressed the view that the commemoration of Ashura represents a form of Bid‘ah. They argue that annual mourning ceremonies for Husayn, or any individual, were not established or practiced by Muhammad, even for his closest family members, and therefore hold no basis in traditional Islamic practices.[125][126][127][128] Similarly, Ibn Rajab, in his Kitab al-Iata'if, argued that neither God nor the Prophet prescribed days of mourning for the calamities or deaths of prophets, let alone for others of lesser status.[129][130]

Twelvers have also been accused of raising Karbala in Iraq to holiness and prominence — which in itself is "frowned upon by Sunnis" — above even Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem.[131][132] This belief is exemplified by the attribution of the title Karbala-i for one who has performed pilgrimage there (just as one who makes the Hajj is titled Hajji), its annual attraction of more pilgrims for Ashura and Arba'een than the Hajj (seen as "a counterweight and a challenge to the annual haj taking place in Mecca"[citation needed]), prostrating during salat on turbah, commonly made from the clay of Karbala, and to numerous ahadith attributed to the Imams which are interpreted by critics as placing the land of Karbala above the Kaaba.[133][134][135][136][137][excessive citations]

Violence and persecution

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Iran, the Twelver Shi'ite bastion, is accused of the persecution of its Sunni minority and the historical persecution of Sunnis since at least Safavid times,[138][139][140][141] e.g. there are no Sunni mosques in any of Iran's large cities.[142] It is also accused of supporting the suppression of Sunnis in such countries as Lebanon, Syria and Iraq, both directly and through the militias it funds, such as Hezbollah and the private militias in Iraq.[143][144] Another common target of persecution by the Iranian Twelver religious establishment is the Baháʼí community, which itself is a religion that branched off from Shi'a Islam.[citation needed] However, Twelvers have themselves often been victims of Anti-Shi'ite violence.

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ For more hadiths see Sahih of Tirmidhi. Cairo, 1350-52. vol. IX, chapter "Ma ja a fi’l-huda": Sahih of Abu Da’ud, vol.ll, Kitab al-Mahdi: Sahih oflbn Majah, vol.ll. chapter khurui’ al-Mahdi": Yanabi’ al-mawaddah: Kitab al-bayan fi akhbar Sahib al zaman of Kanji Shaafi’i, Najaf, 1380; Nur al-absar: Mishkat almasabih of Muham. mad ibn ’Abdallan al-Khatib. Damascus, 1380; al- Sawa’iq al-muhriqah, Is’af al raghibin of Muhammad al-Sabban, Cairo. 1281: al-Fusul al-muhimmmah; Sahih of Muslim: Kitab al-ghaybah by Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Nu’mani, Tehran, 1318; Kamal al-din by Shaykh Saduq. Tehran, 1301; lthbat al-hudat; Bihar al-anwar, vol. LI and LII.
  2. ^ Quran 5:110
  3. ^ Quran 19:12
  4. ^ Once when al-Ma'mun was out hunting with his hunting birds he passed through a road where boys were playing. Among them was Muhammad al-Jawad. When al-Ma'mun's horsemen approached the boys ran away except al-Jawad who remained there. Noting this al-Ma'mun stopped his carriage and asked, "Boy, what kept you from running away with the others?" Al-Jawad replied, "The road was not so narrow that I should fear there would not be room for you to pass, and I have not been guilty of any offence that I should be afraid, and I considered that you were the sort of man who would not injure one who had done no wrong." The Caliph was very delighted, after he had gone on a short distance one of his hunting birds brought him a small fish, which he hid in his fist and returned and asked the boy, who was still standing there "What have I in my hand?" The young Imam answered that the "creator of living things has created in the sea a small fish that is fished by the falcons of the kings and caliphs to try with it the progeny of al-Mustafa.[12] Al-Ma'mun was much pleased and asked the child about his lineage, to which Imam al-Jawad responded accordingly.
  5. ^ According to Madelung the majority of the Sunnite reports quoted by al-Tabari do not identify the ahl al-Kisa. Other Sunnite reports mention Fatimah, Hasan and Husayn, and some agree with the Shia tradition that the ahl al-kisa including Ali, were assembled for the event of mubahala.[80]
  6. ^ Quran 3:45
  7. ^ Quran 28:7
  8. ^ Quran 16:68
  9. ^ Quran 13:11
  10. ^ Quran 5:64

References

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  1. ^ Momen 1985, p. xiii
  2. ^ Brunner, Rainer; Ende, Werner, eds. (2001). The Twelver Shia in Modern Times: Religious Culture and Political History. BRILL. p. 178. ISBN 9789004118034. The intellectual history of Twelver Shia Islam in the 20th century has witnessed quite a few attempts by religious scholars and lay intellectuals at religious reform, which nearly inevitably meant criticism of existing practices. The reformers have concentrated on various aspects of Shia popular religion with a high symbolic value which determine the outward appearance of Shia Islam and its relation to mainstream Sunni Islam. Not least because of that strong symbolism they have deemed these practices to be against the true spirit of Shia Islam, even against the spirit of Islam itself.
  3. ^ David Gardner (18 December 2011). Last Chance: The Middle East in the Balance (revised ed.). I.B.Tauris. ISBN 9780857730336. ...is profoundly repellent to the orthodox Sunni. So too are the rituals associated with the Imam Hussein - comparable to the central event of the crucifixion in Christianity - and indeed the whole Shia iconography, which for the Sunni strays into idol-worship.
  4. ^ Ingvild Flaskerud (2 December 2010). Visualizing Belief and Piety in Iranian Shiism (illustrated ed.). A&C Black. p. 234. ISBN 9781441149077.
  5. ^ Vali Nasr (17 April 2007). The Shia Revival: How Conflicts within Islam Will Shape the Future. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 44. ISBN 9780393066401.
  6. ^ The Routledge Handbook of Religion and Security, by Chris Seiple, Dennis R. Hoover, Pauletta Otis, 2012, page 60
  7. ^ A Companion To The History Of The Middle East, edited by Youssef M. Choueiri, page 93
  8. ^ Islam and the West, by Bernard Lewis, 1993, page 163
  9. ^ Madelung, W. (24 April 2012). "al-Mahdī". Brill – via referenceworks.brillonline.com.
  10. ^ a b Tabatabai, Sayyid Muhammad Hossein (1975). Shi'ite Islam (PDF) (First ed.). State University of New York Press. pp. 210–211 (185–186 in the ebook). ISBN 0-87395-272-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 15 August 2015.
  11. ^ a b Ibn Masud, Abdallah. al Fusul al Muhimmah. p. 271.
  12. ^ a b c d Donaldson, Dwight M. (1933). The Shi'ite Religion: A History of Islam in Persia and Irak. BURLEIGH PRESS. pp. 190–197, 217–222.
  13. ^ Iran talks up temporary marriages, by Frances Harrison, BBC News, Last Updated: 2 June 2007.
  14. ^ Temporary 'Enjoyment Marriages' In Vogue Again With Some Iraqis, by Nancy Trejos, The Washington Post, 20 January 2007.
  15. ^ Law of desire: temporary marriage in Shi'i Iran, by Shahla Haeri, pg.6.
  16. ^ Islam: a very short introduction, by Malise Ruthven.
  17. ^ "In permitting these usufructuary marriages Muḥammad appears but to have given Divine (?) sanction to one of the abominable practices of ancient Arabia, for Burckhardt (vol. ii. p. 378) says, it was a custom of their forefathers to assign to a traveller who became their guest for the night, some female of the family, most commonly the host's own wife!" Hughes, T. P. (1885). In A Dictionary of Islam: Being a Cyclopædia of the Doctrines, Rites, Ceremonies, and Customs, together with the Technical and Theological Terms, of the Muhammadan Religion. London: W. H. Allen & Co.
  18. ^ Baran, Zeyno (21 July 2011). Citizen Islam: The Future of Muslim Integration in the West. A&C Black. ISBN 9781441112484.
  19. ^ Andreeva, Elena (2007). Russia and Iran in the great game: travelogues and Orientalism. Routledge studies in Middle Eastern history. 8. Psychology Press. pp. 162–163. ISBN 0415771536. "Most of the travelers describe the Shi'i institution of temporary marriage (sigheh) as 'legalized profligacy' and hardly distinguish between temporary marriage and prostitution."
  20. ^ Haeri, Shahla (1989). Law of desire: temporary marriage in Shi'i Iran. Contemporary issues in the Middle East. Syracuse University Press. p. x. ISBN 0815624832. "Outside of the religious establishment and the ongoing disputes between Shi'i and Sunni scholars, the attitude toward temporary marriage has been primarily one of ambivalence and disdain. Before the revolution of 1979, the secular Iranian middle classes dismissed temporary marriage as a form of prostitution that had been legitimized by the religious establishment, who, to use a popular Persian expression, 'put a religious hat on it.'"
  21. ^ "Mutʿah | Temporary, Islamic, Contractual | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2 June 2024. Retrieved 29 July 2024.
  22. ^ a b Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org.
  23. ^ Michel Foucault, Discipline and punish: The birth of Prison, Trans Alan Sheridan (New York: Vantage, 1979)
  24. ^ Mahnaz Afkhami, Erika Friedl - 1994 In the eye of the storm: women in post-revolutionary Iran - Page 105
  25. ^ "Muta', Temporary Marriage in Islamic Law". www.al-islam.org. 27 September 2012.
  26. ^ Said Amir Arjomand (1984), From nationalism to revolutionary Islam, page 171
  27. ^ a b Muḥammad Ḥusayn Ṭabāṭabāʼī, Muhammad H. Al-Tabataba'i. Shiʻite Islam. Issue 5 of The Persian studies series. SUNY Press, 1977. ISBN 0-87395-390-8, ISBN 978-0-87395-390-0. Pg 227
  28. ^ Ruhollah Khomeini (4 October 2012). "Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist". Program for the Establishment of an Islamic Government. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
  29. ^ Ahmad al-Afghaanee (1985). Bilal Philips (ed.). The Mirage in Iran (PDF). Shi'ism:The Present: Tawheed Publications. p. 35. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 April 2014. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
  30. ^ Crone, Patricia (2005). Medieval Islamic Political Thought. The Imamis: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 123–124. ISBN 9780748621941.
  31. ^ Mohammad Ali Amir-Moezzi (1994). The Divine Guide in Early Shi'ism: The Sources of Esotericism in Islam. SUNY Press. p. 129. ISBN 9780791421222.
  32. ^ Ahmad Abdullah Salamah (4 May 2007). Shia & Sunni perspective on Islam: an objective comparison of the Shia and Sunni doctrines based on the Holy Quran and Hadith. The University of California. p. 90.
  33. ^ Hans Gerhard Kippenberg, Guy G. Stroumsa, ed. (1995). Secrecy and Concealment: Studies in the History of Mediterranean and Near Eastern Religions. Taqiyya in Shia Theology and Religion: BRILL. p. 373. ISBN 9789004102354.
  34. ^ A. Christian Van Gorder (2010). Christianity in Persia and the Status of Non-muslims in Iran (illustrated ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. p. 102. ISBN 9780739136096.
  35. ^ Crone, Patricia (2005). Medieval Islamic Political Thought. The Imamis: Edinburgh University Press. p. 124. ISBN 9780748621941.
  36. ^ Faysal Noor (2013). Hani al-Tarabulsi (ed.). Taqiyyah: The Other Face. Al-Munasaha.
  37. ^ Quran 16:106
  38. ^ Momen 1985, p. 183
  39. ^ Virani, Shafique N. (2007). The Ismailis in the Middle Ages: A History of Survival, a Search for Salvation. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-19-531173-0.
  40. ^ "Taqiyah". Oxford Dictionary of Islam. John L. Esposito, Ed. Oxford University Press. 2003. Retrieved 25 May 2011.
  41. ^ Momen 1985, p. 39
  42. ^ Nicholas Schmidle. To Live Or to Perish Forever: Two Tumultuous Years in Pakistan. Macmillan, 2010. ISBN 0-8050-9149-1, ISBN 978-0-8050-9149-6. Pg 23
  43. ^ The History of al-Tabari, Volume IX, The Last Years of the Prophet, p186-187, SUNY Press
  44. ^ Patrick Cockburn. Muqtada: Muqtada al-Sadr, the Shia revival, and the struggle for Iraq. Simon and Schuster, 2008. ISBN 1-4165-5147-6, ISBN 978-1-4165-5147-8. Pg 25
  45. ^ Muhammad Saed Abdul-Rahman. Islam: Questions and Answers - Schools of Thought, Religions and Sects, Volume 8. MSA Publication Limited, 2003. ISBN 1-86179-291-3, ISBN 978-1-86179-291-4. Pg 102
  46. ^ a b Jamal S. Suwaidi. Iran and the Gulf: a search for stability. I.B.Tauris, 1996. ISBN 1-86064-144-X, 9781860641442. Pg 165
  47. ^ "World Shia Leader Ali Khamenei Fatwa on Insulting Sahaba [R.A]". Dailymotion. 17 November 2013.
  48. ^ "Imam Khamenei: Insulting Symbols of Sunni Brothers Forbidden". Rohama. 2 October 2010. Archived from the original on 3 October 2017. Retrieved 20 May 2020.
  49. ^ "Al-Azhar Chancellor, Religious Leaders Hail Ayatollah Khamenei's Fatwa | AhlulBayt Islamic Mission (AIM)". Aimislam.com. 4 October 2010. Archived from the original on 1 January 2014. Retrieved 1 January 2014.
  50. ^ "Shiite leaders forbid insults against Sunnis". Almonitor.
  51. ^ "Grand Ayatullah Sistani Issues Fatwa condemning Abuse Against Sunni Sanctities in the Light of teaching of 12 Imams". Jafria News.
  52. ^ "Insulting the Sahaba Runs against Teachings of Ahl-ul-Bayt (AS)". Ijtehad.ir. Archived from the original on 26 September 2015. Retrieved 19 August 2015.
  53. ^ "Sayyid Sistani's Fatwa about the Prophet (S.A.W.A.)'s Companions". Archived from the original on 26 September 2015. Retrieved 19 August 2015.
  54. ^ Abu Ja'far al Tusi wrote in his book "al Iqtisad", page 36: "Ayesha was adamant upon waging war against Ali (as), and she did not repent. This proves her kufr and her remaining on it."
  55. ^ Allamah Baqir Majlisi wrote in Bihar al-Anwar, volume 22, page 233: ( "Allah (swt) says in Qur'an [Allah has cited for the kuffar the example of the wife of Nuh and the wife of Lut.] (66:10), I (i.e. Allamah Baqir Majlisi) declare: It is not a secret for the discerning critic (reader/observer) and the one who is clever and knowledgeable that what is mentioned in these verses is an exposure, in fact an explicit declaration of the hypocrisy of Aisha and Hafsah as well as their kufr (disbelief)."
  56. ^ On 24th Jumada Al-Awwal 1438 AH (which coincided with 22 February 2016), Grand Ayatollah Sheikh Wahid Al-Khorasani said that Abu Bakr and Umar took the land of Fadak from Fatima unjustly, and so they have no right being buried in the house of the Holy Prophet, as "it is usurped land". In the presence of hundreds of scholars, students of knowledge, and believers, then went on to say: "It is therefore the duty of every single Muslim now to dig up the graves of these two men (i.e. Abu Bakr and Umar), and to exhume what remains of their corpses. In fact, the ruling of burial in usurped property is the obligation of exhumation according to legal consensus. This is the principle and this is the conclusion." See: [1].
  57. ^ Kitab al-Taharah Volume 3 Page 457: As for the other groups of the Nawasib, actually the Khawarij, even though they'll get more punished than the Kuffar, yet this is not proving them to be Najis (impure). Hence, if a ruler makes Khurooj (opposes/fights) Amir Al-Mu'mineen (as) not for religious reason, rather for worldly reason (seeking power) or other motives like A'isha, Zubair, Talha, Mu'aawiya and their likes, or if someone holds Nasb/enmity towards him or one of the [twelve] Imams (as), not due to religious reason rather because of his enmity towards the Quraish, or Bani Hashim or the Arabs or because [Ali] killed one of his children or his father etc. Apparently none of those are necessarily considered Najis (impure) from an apparent point of view, in fact they are more impure than dogs and pigs. See: [2]
  58. ^ On his official website, the Grand Ayatollah "reaffirmed" the Shia belief that "Aisha committed zina". See: [3]
  59. ^ Shia's and Shiaism, there Genesis and Evolution: Shia Sects Archived 2013-12-28 at the Wayback Machine, by Allama Ehsan Elahi Zaheer. Text quotation: "If God had commanded us to obey an adolescent, He would have also ordered the adolescent to obey His injunctions. Just as it is unlawful to declare a non-adult as "Mukallaf", similarly he is not legally empowered to arbitrate among people. He can not grasp the subtleties and intricacies involved in the solution of problems; he is not fully conversant with religious injunctions and the rules and regulations of Sharia. The Sharia introduced by the holy Prophet (peace be upon him) which is the basic need of the Ummah till the arrival of the doomsday is obviously beyond the range of an adolescent's comprehension. If a non-adolescent can handle these complicated and sensitive issues, then we can also expect a child who is in his cradle and swings to the rhythms and melodies of nursery rhymes, to show an awareness of these issues and to suggest solutions to dis-entangle their knots. But it all sounds absurd because adolescence is not the same things as non-adolescence and a child can not rationally be expected to behave like a grown-up person. The perceptions and reflections of the former do not operate at the same wave lengths as those of the latter."
  60. ^ An Ismaili heresiography, by Wilferd Madelung, Paul Ernest Walker, pg.114-115
  61. ^ Sharif al-Qarashi, Bāqir (2005). The Life of Imam Muhammad Al-Jawad. Translated by Abdullah al-Shahin. Qum: Ansariyan Publications. pp. 53, 205–206.
  62. ^ A–Z of Prophets in Islam and Judaism, B. M. Wheeler, John the Baptist
  63. ^ See "Ibn Taymiyya's Critique of Shia Imamology. Translation of Three Sections of his "Minhāj al-Sunna", by Yahya Michot, The Muslim World, 104/1-2 (2014), pp. 109-149.
  64. ^ Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari. Tafsir al-Tabari vol. XXII. pp. 5–7.
  65. ^ a b c Rizvi, Sayyid Muhammad (2001). The Infallibility of the Prophets in the Qur'an. Bilal Muslim Mission of Tanzania. pp. 15–16.[permanent dead link]
  66. ^ YouTube; Is Imamah mentioned in the Holy Quran?
  67. ^ YouTube; Imamah in the Quran
  68. ^ I. M. N. Al-Jubouri. Islamic Thought. page 314
  69. ^ I. M. N. Al-Jubouri. Islamic Thought.page 107
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  71. ^ M. F.Sayeed. Fundamental doctrine of Islam and its pragmatism.page 298
  72. ^ Momen 1985, p. 147
  73. ^ a b Brown, Daniel (1999). Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-521-65394-7.
  74. ^ Momen 1985, pp. 39, 150–183
  75. ^ Amir-Moezzi, Mohammad Ali. "SHIʿITE DOCTRINE". Encyclopedia Iranica.
  76. ^ Momen 1985, p. 148
  77. ^ Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project Team (12 November 2013). "A Shi'ite Encyclopedia".
  78. ^ Dabashi, Hamid (2006). Theology of Discontent: The Ideological Foundation of the Islamic Revolution in Iran. Transaction Publishers. pp. 103–104. ISBN 1-4128-0516-3.
  79. ^ Tabatabaei, Muhammad Husayn (2008). Islamic Teachings in Brief. Ansariyan Publications.
  80. ^ a b Madelung, Wilferd (15 October 1998). The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge University Press. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-521-64696-3.
  81. ^ Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari. Tafsir al-Tabari vol. XXII. pp. 5–7.
  82. ^ Kitab Al-Kafi, Chapter 40 (Statements about al-Jafr, al-Jami‘ and the Book of Fatima (a.s.)) Archived 20 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, H 639, Ch. 40, h 5, translated by Muhammad Sarwar. A sound tradition according to Grand Ayatollah Khomeini in: "THE POSITION OF WOMEN FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF IMAM KHOMEINI", pg. 10-11. This tradition quotes Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq, as saying: "After the death of her father, Fatima, upon whom be peace, lived for 75 days. She was in this world and she was overcome with grief. Gabriel, the Trusted Spirit, came to her regularly to console her and tell her of future events."
  83. ^ Thomas Patrick Hughes (1885). Dictionary of Islam: being a cyclopædia of the doctrines, rites, ceremonies, and customs, together with the technical and theological terms, of the Muhammadan religion. W. H. Allen & Co. p. 573. sunnis deny revelation fatimah.
  84. ^ Momen 1985, p. 149
  85. ^ Abdulaziz Sachedina (1980), Al-Khums: The Fifth in the Imāmī Shīʿī Legal System, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 39, No. 4 (Oct., 1980), pp. 276-277, 275-289, note 10
  86. ^ al-Shra wa-l-taskih, Musa al-Musawi, pp. 65-76
  87. ^ The Just Ruler in Shi'ite Islam, Abdulaziz Sachedina, pp. 237-45
  88. ^ Shi'a Islam: From Religion to Revolution, Heinz Halm, pp. 93-94
  89. ^ John L. Esposito (2004), The Oxford Dictionary of Islam, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195125597, pp. 174
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  91. ^ Cornell, Svante (9 October 2015). "The Rise of Diyanet: the Politicization of Turkey's Directorate of Religious Affairs". turkeyanalyst.org. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
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  96. ^ Islam: A Concise Introduction, by Neal Robinson, p. 98.
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  98. ^ World Criminal Justice Systems: A Comparative Survey, by Richard J. Terrill, p. 605.
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  100. ^ Sahih Muslim, 4:1515
  101. ^ Sahih Muslim, 4:1516
  102. ^ Sahih Muslim, 4:1520
  103. ^ Sahih Muslim, 4:1522
  104. ^ Sahih Muslim, 4:1523
  105. ^ Sahih Muslim, 4:1524
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  111. ^ Muslims, by S. H. M. Rizvi, Shibani Roy, B. B. Dutta, p. 20.
  112. ^ Ethnic Composition and Crisis in South Asia: Pakistan, by Haraprasad Chattopadhyaya, Sanat K. Sarkar, pp. 766-7.
  113. ^ The Sunni-Shia Conflict in Pakistan, by Mūsá Ḵẖān Jalālzaʼī, pp. 279-80.
  114. ^ Abbaszadeh, Abbas. "The Sources and Theoretical Foundations of Beda and Its Accordance with Divine Knowledge and Predestination in Shiism." (2018): 139-156.
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  121. ^ A.C. Grayling (1 March 2010). "Drugs and Laws". Thinking of Answers: Questions in the Philosophy of Everyday Life. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 9781408810538. Sunni Muslims and even some Shias are opposed to the Ashura ritual, condemning it as barbaric.
  122. ^ Dr Farideh Heyat Nfa (5 March 2014). Azeri Women in Transition: Women in Soviet and Post-Soviet Azerbaijan. Routledge. p. 195. ISBN 9781136871702. Later, during the 1920s, there were intense public campaigns by the Soviet government against the rituals of Ashura, denounced as barbaric practices, and a vestige of feudalism.
  123. ^ Monsutti, Alessandro; Naef, Silvia; Sabahi, Farian (2007). The Other Shiites: From the Mediterranean to Central Asia. Peter Lang. pp. 146–. ISBN 978-3-03911-289-0.
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  125. ^ Raihan Ismail (Autumn 2012). "The Saudi Ulema and the Shi'a of Saudi Arabia". Journal of Shi'a Islamic Studies. 5 (4): 418.
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  127. ^ Minhaj as-Sunnah an-Nabawiyyah, by Ibn Taymiyyah, vol. 4, p. 554-556.
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  129. ^ N. J. G. Kaptein (1993). Muḥammad's Birthday Festival: Early History in the Central Muslim Lands and Development in the Muslim West Until the 10th/16th Century. BRILL. pp. 57–8. ISBN 9789004094529.
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Sources

[edit]
  • Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shi'i Islam. Yale University Press.
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