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Superstition in Islamic tradition

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11th century, Fatimid amulet in Kufic script with six-pointed Solomon's seal, Metropolitan Museum of Art[1]

Despite Islamic tradition taking a generally dim view of superstitious brief in supernatural causality for mundane events, various beliefs in supernatural phenomena have persisted in Muslim societies since the advent of Islam.[2] In Muslim scholarship, the various Islamic schools and branches have contested and probed beliefs and practices that were assumed to be superstitious, but beliefs in Quranic charms, jinn, and the practice of visiting the tombs of religious remain.[3]

Some beliefs, such as the belief in jinn and other aspects of Muslim occult culture, are rooted in the Quran and the culture of early Islamic cosmography. In the same way, shrine veneration and acceptance, and the promotion of saintly miracles, has intimate connections to structures of Islamic religious authority and piety in Islamic history.[3] The study of superstitions in Muslim societies has raised difficult but important questions for Islamic revivalist projects, including by challenging the historical stability, coherence and distinctness of Islam as a religion.[4]

Context, background and history

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According to Ali Rahnema, while superstitious ideas may have been equally common among Christians and Muslims until the 16th century AD, in comparison to the Muslim world, the prevalence and intensity among Christians dramatically declined after reformation movements in Europe.[5]

Muslims facing illness or other crises found strength and reassurance in various religious objects and rituals.[6] According to Travis Zadeh, in spite of talismanic use of the Quran in charms and amulets, tomb visitation evoked much censure in certain orthodox circles. Still in urban centers of the Muslim world, of the pre-modern era active culture of shrine visitation used to be too common. As such both orthodox and folk popular domains of Islamic religious performance build on the power of baraka (divine blessing or charisma) derived through sacred matter. So, various expressions of Quranic theurgy, from charms and amulets to inscriptions on bowls and garments are as much pervasive, converging with ancient attitudes toward divine language and sacred writing.[7][8]

According to Christiane Gruber, Islamic tradition regards water as having healing properties and associates it with cleanliness and godliness.[6] The Quran says water is the source of "every living thing".[6] Since the seventh century, Muslim pilgrims have visited the Zamzam Well, believing its water to be curative, and using it in cleaning rituals and prayer.[6] From the 11th century until around the 19th century, Muslim cultures used magic bowls, healing necklaces and other objects like amulets, talismanic shirt, and scrolls in hopes of warding off drought, famine, floods and even epidemic diseases. Anti-plague talismans known as the "Garden of Names", Quranic scrolls and amulets were worn around the neck or otherwise attached to the body, believing that physical contact with the object would unlock the enclosed blessings or life force, known as baraka in Arabic.[6]

According to Zadeh, the same is true about magic in its various manifestations, which explains a good deal about how the bounds of the licit and the illicit have historically been defined and negotiated. In the modern period, Muslim societies, faced with varied discourses of demystification, the domains of the magical and the enchanted went through substantial reconfiguration in the expressions of Islamic piety, devotion, and learning.[7] Zadeh says the process of modernization in Muslim world, with its grounding in European colonialism and post-Enlightenment thought, as well as in Islamic reformism, has contested and reconfigured many historical and traditional practices, often viewed them as being ignorance and superstitious. This can be observed, for example, rather notably in critiques or corrective advice literature propagated by a range of Muslim scholars toward such activities as exorcism, shrine devotion, and the preparation of amulets, most of such discourse is rooted in classical Islamic exegesis; but, they take on profoundly different expressions in the context of modern Islamic reform. In the competing views of normativity, magic, marvel, and miracle ultimately takes role of normative categories designed not only to understand the world but also to shape it.[7]

Differences between superstitions

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At least one author, Ali Rahmena, distinguishes between "accidental or autonomous" superstition, and magic such as sorcery and witchcraft, black and white. While superstition is "accidental" (for example, no one intends for a black cat to cross their path, so it is accidental), with magic believers are convinced that the laws of nature can be altered by the sorcerer or witch through supernatural forces. A second distinction, according to Ali, is between superstition connected to religion and superstition that is not.[9]

Occultism

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Main article: Islam and magic

Ulum al-ghariba ("occult sciences") or Ulum al-hafiya ("secret sciences") refers to occultism in Islam.[10] Occultism in Islam includes various practices like talismans and interpreting dreams.[11] Simiyya is a doctrine found commonly within Sufi-occult traditions that may be deduced upon the notion of "linking the superior natures with the inferior...", and broadly described as theurgy.[12]

Sufism

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See also: Persecution of Sufis

According to Owen Davies Sufis have been criticized by both orthodox and modernist Muslims for some of their perceived superstitious practices.[13][page needed] According to J.D.Kila along with other desecration and destruction of Sufi places of worship and cultural heritage, a sacred door of Sidi Yahya Mosque was forcefully destroyed because some people believed that door should not to be opened till end of the world.[14]

Devils, Ghoul and Jinn

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Main articles: Shaitan, Ghoul, and Jinn

In Arabic folklore, the ghul is said to dwell in cemeteries and other uninhabited places. A male ghoul is referred to as ghul while the female is called ghulah.[15] While analyzing beliefs in unseen and supernatural angels like Munkar and Nakir visits to tombs in Islamic eschatology, John MacDonald says that origination of such ideas is likely to be then contemporary folklore or superstition.[16] When Islam spread outside of Arabia, belief in the jinn was assimilated with local belief about spirits and deities from Iran, Africa, Turkey and India.[17]

Since the jinn, unlike many spirits and demons in other religions, are thought to be physical beings, Muslims adhere to superstitious practices like uttering dastur before throwing hot water or urinating, warning jinn to leave the place so as to not feel offended by humans.[18]

Due to their physical presence, Islamic scholars debated about legal issues of marriage between jinn and humans, leading to a far reaching belief in sexual union between supernatural creatures and humans. Shayāṭīn (devils), are another type of supernatural creature, deriving from Judeo-Christian demons. According to the Quran they frequently assault heaven but are warded off by angels throwing meteors on them, therefore some Muslims curse the shayatin when seeing a shooting star, believing it was thrown at a shaitan.[19]

Exorcism

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Main article: Spirit possession and exorcism in Islam

Exorcism in Islam is called ʿazaʿim.[20] Ruqya (Arabic: رقية) on the other hand summons jinn and demons by invoking the names of God, and to command them to abandon their mischief[21] and is thought to repair damage believed caused by jinn possession, witchcraft (sihr) or the evil eye.[citation needed] Exorcisms today are part of a wider body of contemporary Islamic alternative medicine.[22]

Morocco has many possession traditions, including exorcism rituals.[23]

Magic

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See also: Magic (supernatural)

Islam distinguishes between God-given gifts or good magic and black magic. Good supernatural powers are therefore a special gift from God, whereas black magic is achieved through help of jinn and shayatin. In the Quranic narrative, Sulayman had the power to speak with animals and command jinn, and he thanks God for this نعمة (i.e. gift, privilege, favour, bounty), which is only given to him with God's permission.[Quran 27:19][24]

Nazar (amulet) and taʿwīdh

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Main articles: Ta'wiz and Nazar (amulet)
Bronze cast talismanic pendant, c.10th century, Nishapur, Iran. The zodiac signs of Leo and Scorpio feature beneath three Solomonic seals and are surrounded by pseudo-writing that resembles the expression "There is no deity but God" in Arabic script.[25] The Metropolitan Museum of Art

The taʿwiz or taʿwīdh (Arabic: تعويذ) is an amulet or locket usually containing verses from the Quran or other Islamic prayers and symbols pertaining to magic. The Tawiz is worn by some Muslims to protect them from evil.[26][27]

The amulet called nazar is supposed to protect against the evil eye, a superstition shared among several cultures including Muslim ones.[citation needed]

Natural phenomena

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Transit of Phobos from Mars, as seen by the Mars Opportunity rover (10 March 2004)
Syzygy i.e. any three objects coming in one line there by middle object crossing in between any two objects can cause partial or full invisibility for two end point objects; i.e. eclipse keeps happening every moment in the universe at some or other place, wherever, whenever any three objects come in one line.

While Solar eclipse and Lunar eclipses, Earthquakes, Thunder and lightning are just natural phenomena as per modern scientific explanations; and Islam avoids irrational connections of the same with other coincidences in human life,[citation needed] still some Muslim individuals and communities are seen singling out specific natural objects and events as signs of God and special sign prayers (salat al-Ayat) are observed on occasions like Solar eclipse and Lunar eclipses, Earthquakes, Thunder and lightning.[28][29][19]

Karamat

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Main article: Karamat

Miracles in Islam play less of an evidentiary role.[30] The Quran is considered the main miracle of the Prophet Muhammad, though the Quran mentions miracles like Jesus talking in infancy.[30] In Sunni Islam, karamat[31] refers to supernatural wonders performed by Muslim saints. In the technical vocabulary of Islamic religious sciences, the singular form karama has a sense similar to charism, a favor or spiritual gift freely bestowed by God.[32] The marvels ascribed to Muslim walis have included supernatural physical actions, predictions of the future, and "interpretation of the secrets of hearts".[32] A wide-spread belief holds that even ordinary humans can become walis and endowed by God with supernatural powers.[failed verification] Such wali played a significant role in missionary activities (dawah).[30]

Contemporary traditions

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Iran

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It is claimed by some experts that first minerals, fruits, mountains and seas that accepted Islam, Prophet Mohammed and Shia Imam Ali Velayat include eggplant, gold, fresh water oceans, mount agate.[33][34] Persian melon is said to not have accepted Velayat by prophet's quote according to Mohammad-Baqer Majlesi.[35] After the death of Abbas the Great his burial place was not designated prior to avoid Talisman.[36] Dogs are called Najis.[37]

According to author Ali Rahnema's analysis of "superstition as an ideology" in the politics of Iran, during the eight-year administration of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (2005–2013) "superstition begot phantasmical claims and practices", immersing a small cross-section of Iranians into "an alarming frenzy of irrationality" (in contrast to emphasis on aql (reason) of his predecessor Mohammad Khatami).[38] An example of one of these claims was Ahmadinejad's insistence (in a videoes meeting with Ayatollah Javadi Amoli) that during his (Ahmadinejad's) 28 minute speech to the UN General Assembly in 2005, Ahmadinejad had been enshrouded in a beam of light and that the Assembly audience had been fixated on him and incapable of blinking their eyes while he spoke.[39]

South Asia

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Further information: Superstition in India and Superstition in Pakistan

Among Muslims in India and Pakistan, magical thinking pervades as many acts and events are attributed to supernatural and ritual, such as prayer, sacrifice, or the observance of a taboo are followed. The penchant for faith healers and black magicians spans society, from the rich landlords of the rural areas to the urban classes of Hyderabad Deccan, Bangalore, Lahore and Karachi.[40][41][42] [irrelevant citation] In India and Pakistan, mental illness and psychological problems are often considered to be an encounter with Shaitan (Satan) (Urdu: شيطان, Hindi: शैतान), evil jinn (Urdu: جن, Hindi: जिन) or demons who have taken over one's body and mind.[40] People, especially children and young girls, wear taʿwiz (amulets) (Urdu: تعویز, Hindi: तावीज़) to ward off the evil eye. Spells, incantations and curses could also result in ghouls or churel (Urdu: چڑیل, Hindi: चुड़ैल) haunting a person.[citation needed]

Muslim walis (Imams, Maulvis, Sufis, Mullahs, Faqirs) perform exorcism on individuals[according to whom?] who are believed to be possessed. The homes, houses, buildings and grounds are blessed and consecrated by Mullahs or Imams by reciting Quran and Adhan (Urdu: أَذَان ), the Islamic call to prayer, recited by the muezzin. Some of the popular superstitions in India and Pakistan included that black cats crossing one's path will bring bad luck, a crow's cawing announces the surprise arrival of guests,[43][irrelevant citation][44] consuming dairy products with seafood will cause skin diseases, itchy palms means presage monetary gains, resting under trees after dark carries the risk of demonic possession, twitching of the left eye is an ill-omen, and sneezing can be caused by being in another's thoughts.[45][irrelevant citation]

Islamic responses

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Flexible modernist discourse

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According to Daniel W. Brown a whole genre of devout literature exists to ascribe miraculous proofs of Muhammad's prophesy, shaped with the purpose of establishing Muhammad's prophetic credentials, many traditional scholars like Ibn Ishaq described various miracles, like a palm tree sighs as prophet passes, at prophet's command a cluster of dates jumps off the tree, the moon is split down the middle, with very small amount of food the prophet feeds the crowd.[46] Brown says to remain sensitive discomfiture of modern audiences such descriptions of miracles are systematically expunged and hence modern audiences grown with sanitized accounts of the prophet get startled with pervasiveness of miracles in early biographies of Muhammad.[46] According to Brown many modern Muslims and non Muslims may agree that probably, Muhammad would not have performed any miracles, and view such miracles as a relic of superstitions, and hence why many modern Muslims may wish the miracle accounts to disappear since Quran itself implies that Muhammad did not perform any miracles.[46]

Influenced by Al-Afghani's modernist interpretations, Muhammad Abduh, a mufti of Egypt revisited then contemporary Islamic thought with his ijtihad post–1899 AD in his tafsir al Manar, expressed that, wherever the Quran seemed contradictory and irrational to logic and science, it must be understood as reflecting the Arab vision of the world, as written with available 7th century intellectual level of Arabs; all verses referring to superstitions like witchcraft and the evil eye be explained as expressions of then–Arab beliefs; and miraculous events and deeds in Quran be rationally explained just as metaphors or allegories.[47]

In their research paper, Jafar Nekoonam, Fatemeh Sadat, and Moosavi Harami discuss the verity of interpretations about the Quranic concept dealt in verses 15:16-18, 37:6-10, 72:8-9, 67:5 of stone throwing devils with meteors.[48] According to Jafar Nekoonam et al, 2016, various interpretations for what the Quran means by stone throwing devils with meteors have been put forward by Muslim exegetes over the centuries. In the pre-modern times, the meaning of this Quranic expression was assumed to be clear, Meccan unbelievers would accuse the Prophet of getting the revelation from the jinn. According to Jafar Nekoonam et al, the Quran responded to their allegations by saying that jinn had no access to the heavenly discourse, as the heavens were protected with meteors.[48] But since, in the modern times, scientific community has denied any relation in between meteors and devils and meteors being simply stones that are scattered across the universe, burning and transforming into fire after entering the earth's atmosphere. The way the interpreters of the Quran understood the verses in question has been changed with the modern era scientific developments.[48]

According to Jafar Nekoonam et al, some commentators considered the idea of stone throwing devils with meteors in relation to the immaterial world, presumed beyond human understanding; hence, they would refrain from interpreting it. But according to Jafar Nekoonam et al, such attitude does not explain how mentioning an incomprehensible idea would have functioned as a response to the accusations of Meccan disbelievers of the time of the Prophet. Other interpreters say that it is possible that the meteors actually force away the jinn from the abode of angels, but this theory would not be acceptable either, since angels are not material beings to live in the material sky. Some other scholars suggested non-literal interpretations for these verses. They assumed that these Quranic verses did not refer to material meteors or heavens, but referred to just the fact that jinn were not allowed to enter God's throne.[48] Jafar Nekoonam et al says such interpretation would mean that during the first fourteen centuries of Islam, the verses of the Quran were misunderstood, which would not be in line with the fact that the Quran is the guide for all mankind of all times.[48] Based on this analysis, Jafar Nekoonam et al concludes that the right interpretation would be to say that the Quran employs the idea of stone throwing devils with meteors, which was familiar to its original audience, in order to reject the accusation by Meccan unbelievers that the Prophet received the revelation from devils. Interpreting the Quran to say in fact states in the form of that familiar idea, is that devils are supposed to be incapable of ascending to the spiritual world of angels to receive heavenly guidance. Thus, in this theory, such interpretation, both the literal meaning of the verses in question, which was what Muslim understanding in the past fourteen centuries, and the purity of the Quran from unscientific claims can be preserved.[48]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Zadeh, Travis. "Magic, Marvel, and Miracle in Early Islamic Thought". Academia. pp. 236 of 235–267.
  2. ^ Shaz, Rashid; Shāz, Rāshid (2006). Islam, Negotiating the Future. Milli Publications. p. 167. ISBN 978-81-87856-05-4. Archived from the original on 2020-12-05. Retrieved 2020-09-12.
  3. ^ a b Zadeh, Travis (1965). Collins, David J. (ed.). Magic, Marvel, and Miracle in Early Islamic Thought. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 235, 236, 237. ISBN 978-1-139-04302-1. OCLC 904389658.
  4. ^ Knight, Michael Muhammad (2016). Magic in Islam. New York: Tarcher Perigee (Penguin). pp. 195, 197. ISBN 978-1-101-98349-2. OCLC 932302756.
  5. ^ Rahnema, Ali (2011-06-06). Superstition as Ideology in Iranian Politics: From Majlesi to Ahmadinejad. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-49562-2.
  6. ^ a b c d e Gruber, Christiane (2019–2020). "Long before face masks, Islamic healers tried to ward off disease with their version of PPE". theconversation.com. Archived from the original on July 12, 2020. Retrieved September 14, 2020.
  7. ^ a b c Zadeh, Travis (2015). David J. Collins (ed.). Magic, Marvel, and Miracle in Early Islamic Thought: The Cambridge history of magic and witchcraft in the West: from antiquity to the present. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 260 to 262. ISBN 978-1-139-04302-1. OCLC 904389658.
  8. ^ Zadeh, Travis (2009). "Touching and Ingesting: Early Debates over the Material Qur'an". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 129 (3): 443–466. ISSN 0003-0279. JSTOR 20789421.
  9. ^ Rahnema, Ali (2011). "Introduction". Superstition as an Ideology in Iranian Politics. NY, NY: Cambridge University Press. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-0-521-18221-8. Retrieved 10 March 2024.
  10. ^ Sebastian Günther, Dorothee Pielow Die Geheimnisse der oberen und der unteren Welt: Magie im Islam zwischen Glaube und Wissenschaft BRILL, 18.10.2018 ISBN 978-90-04-38757-7 p. 8
  11. ^ Tobias Nünlist Dämonenglaube im Islam Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, 2015 ISBN 978-3-110-33168-4 p. 289 (German)
  12. ^ Eric Geoffroy, Introduction to Sufism: The Inner Path of Islam, World Wisdom, 2010 p. 21
  13. ^ Davies, Owen (2012-01-26). Magic: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-958802-2.
  14. ^ Kila, Joris D. (2019). "Iconoclasm and Cultural Heritage Destruction During Contemporary Armed Conflicts". In Hufnagel, Saskia; Chappell, Duncan (eds.). The Palgrave Handbook on Art Crime. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 653–683. doi:10.1057/978-1-137-54405-6_30. ISBN 978-1-137-54405-6. S2CID 198726627.
  15. ^ Steiger, Brad (2011). The Werewolf Book: The Encyclopedia of Shape-Shifting Beings. Canton, MI: Visible Ink Press. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-57859-367-5.
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  19. ^ a b Hughes, Thomas Patrick (1885). "Genii". Dictionary of Islam: Being a Cyclopædia of the Doctrines, Rites, Ceremonies . London, UK: W.H.Allen. pp. 134–6. Retrieved 4 October 2019.
  20. ^ Gerda Sengers Women and Demons: Cultic Healing in Islamic Egypt BRILL, 2003 ISBN 978-90-04-12771-5 p. 50
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  22. ^ Hall, Helen (2018-04-17). "Exorcism – how does it work and why is it on the rise?". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 2018-09-11. Retrieved 2018-09-10. Beliefs and rituals which could appropriately be labelled exorcism are found in almost all cultures and faith traditions, but in the West are encountered most frequently within Christian or Islamic settings.
  23. ^ Joseph P. Laycock Spirit Possession around the World: Possession, Communion, and Demon Expulsion across Cultures: Possession, Communion, and Demon Expulsion across Cultures ABC-CLIO 2015 ISBN 978-1-610-69590-9 page 243
  24. ^ Ibn Kathir Tafsir Ibn Kathir for Q27:19
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  31. ^ * Hans Wehr, J. Milton Cowan (1979). A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic (4th ed.). Spoken Language Services. Archived from the original on 2020-06-01. Retrieved 2020-08-06.
  32. ^ a b Gardet, L., "Karāma", in: Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs.
  33. ^ "آثار و فواید نخستین سنگ های ایمان آورنده به خداوند!". قدس آنلاین | پایگاه خبری - تحلیلی (in Persian). 2012-11-12. Archived from the original on 2019-03-03. Retrieved 2020-12-05.
  34. ^ "از اقرار بادمجان به ولایت تا دریاهایی که شیعه و سنی هستند! - تابناک | Tabnak". www.tabnak.ir. Archived from the original on 2018-10-04. Retrieved 2020-12-05.
  35. ^ "ما یا تحت ولایت خدا هستیم، یا تحت ولایت شیطان!/خربزه ای که ولایت امیرالمومنین را قبول نکرده بود". www.yjc.ir. Archived from the original on 2018-02-12. Retrieved 2020-12-05.
  36. ^ "تحلیلی جامعه‌شناختی بر خرافه‌گرایی دینی در عصر مرشد شاهان صفوی". Archived from the original on 2020-07-13. Retrieved 2020-12-05.
  37. ^ "چرا سگ نجس است؟ +بررسی نجاست سگ از دیدگاه اسلام و قرآن". www.yjc.ir. Archived from the original on 2018-07-17. Retrieved 2020-12-05.
  38. ^ Rahnema, Ali (2011). "Ahmadinejad, A Touch of Light". Superstition as an Ideology in Iranian Politics. NY, NY: Cambridge University Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-521-18221-8. Retrieved 10 March 2024.
  39. ^ Rahnema, Ali (2011). "Ahmadinejad, A Touch of Light". Superstition as an Ideology in Iranian Politics. NY, NY: Cambridge University Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-521-18221-8. Retrieved 10 March 2024.
  40. ^ a b "Women falling in black magic traps". The Times of India. 21 February 2012. Archived from the original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved 23 August 2020.
  41. ^ Rodriguez, Alex (29 March 2012). "In Pakistan, faith healers have no shortage of believers". Archived from the original on 16 August 2017. Retrieved 15 December 2017 – via LA Times.
  42. ^ "Bengaluru: India's IT capital is also its black magic capital - City of Black Magic?". The Economic Times. 17 May 2017. Archived from the original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved 23 August 2020.
  43. ^ Census of India, 1971: A. Town directory. B. Special survey report on selected towns. (i) Town study of Bhongir. (ii) Town study of Kakinanda. C. Special survey reports on selected villages. 1. Panchalamarri. 2. Unagatla. Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India. 1972. p. 199. It is believed that if a crow cries at the house or if any utensil slips out of hands while scourging, relatives would arrive.
  44. ^ Pakistan Journal of social Sciences (PJSS)Vol. 38, No.2 (2018), pp. 771-782Superstitions as Behavioral Control in PakistanTayyaba Batool Tahir, Shahzadah Fahed Qureshi, Tayyaba Safi https://www.bzu.edu.pk/PJSS/Vol.%2038,%20No.%202,%202018/PJSS-Vol38-No2-34.pdf Archived 2020-12-05 at the Wayback Machine
  45. ^ "7 popular superstitions among Pakistanis". The Nation. 25 January 2016. Archived from the original on 29 December 2019. Retrieved 6 August 2020.
  46. ^ a b c Brown, Daniel W. (24 August 2011). A new introduction to Islam (Second ed.). Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 97, 98. ISBN 978-1-4443-5772-1. OCLC 778339212.
  47. ^ Zayd, Naṣr Ḥāmid Abū (2006). Reformation of Islamic Thought: A Critical Historical Analysis. Amsterdam University Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-90-5356-828-6. Archived from the original on 2020-12-05. Retrieved 2020-09-14.
  48. ^ a b c d e f Nekoonam, Jafar; Moosavi Harami, Fatemeh Sadat (2016-12-01). "A Historical Analysis of the Quranic Concept of Lapidating Devils with Meteors". Religious Inquiries. 5 (10): 85–95. ISSN 2322-4894. Archived from the original on 2020-08-03. Retrieved 2020-10-07.

Bibliography

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  • Muzaffar, Ayesha. Abu's Jinns. Amazon Digital Services LLC - KDP Print US, 2018.
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