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Four Olds

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The remains of the Wanli Emperor (r. 1572–1620) at the Ming dynasty tombs. Red Guards dragged the remains of the emperor and of his empresses to the front of the tomb, where they denounced and burned them.[1]

The Four Olds (simplified Chinese: 四旧; traditional Chinese: 四舊; pinyin: sì jiù) refer to categories used by the Red Guards during the Cultural Revolution to characterize elements of Chinese culture prior to the Chinese Communist Revolution that they were attempting to destroy. The Four Olds were 'old ideas', 'old culture', 'old customs', and 'old habits'.[a][2] During the Red August of 1966, shortly after the onset of the Cultural Revolution, the Red Guards' campaign to destroy the Four Olds began amid the massacres being carried out in Beijing.[3][4]

Terminology

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The term "Four Olds" first appeared on June 1, 1966, in Chen Boda's People's Daily editorial, "Sweep Away All Cow Demons and Snake Spirits", where the Old Things were described as anti-proletarian, "fostered by the exploiting classes, [and to] have poisoned the minds of the people for thousands of years".[5] However, which customs, cultures, habits, and ideas specifically constituted the "Four Olds" were never clearly defined.[6]

On August 8, the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party used the term at its 8th National Congress. The term was endorsed on August 18 by Lin Biao at a mass rally, and from there it spread to Red Flag magazine, as well as to Red Guard publications.[6]

Calls to destroy the "Four Olds" usually did not appear in isolation, but were contrasted with the hope of building the "Four News" (new customs, new culture, new habits, new ideas).[6] Newborn socialist things were said to struggle against the Four Olds.[7] The idea that Chinese culture was responsible for China's economic backwardness and needed to be reformed had some precedent in the May Fourth Movement (1919), and was also encouraged by colonial authorities during the Second Sino-Japanese War.[8]

Campaign to destroy the Four Olds

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See also: Red August and Five Black Categories

The campaign to Destroy the Four Olds and Cultivate the Four News (Chinese: 破四旧立四新; pinyin: Pò Sìjiù Lì Sìxīn) began in Beijing on August 19 during the "Red August".[5][9] Academic Alessandro Russo writes that the destruction of the Four Olds was an ambiguous campaign from the perspective of the Chinese Communist Party.[10] He argues that in a time of increasing political pluralization, the Party sought to channel student activism towards obvious class enemies and less relevant objectives to make it easier for the Party to contain the situation.[10]

The "re-naming" campaign

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A 1968 map of Beijing showing streets and landmarks renamed during the Cultural Revolution. "Āndìngménnèidàjiē" (Stability Gate Inner Street) became "Dàyuèjìnlù" (Great Leap Forward Road), "Táijīchǎngdàjiē" (Taiji Factory Street) became "Yǒnggélù" (Perpetually Ousting Road), "Dōngjiāomínxiàng" (East Cross People's Lane) was renamed "Fǎndìlù" (Anti-Imperialist Road), "Běihǎigōngyuán" (North Sea Park) was renamed "Gōngnóngbīnggōngyuán" (Worker-Peasant-Soldier Park) and "Jǐngshāngōngyuán" (Mountain View Park) became "Hóngwèibīnggōngyuán" (Red Guards Park). Most of the Cultural Revolution-era name changes were later reversed.

Across China, signs bearing old road names were vandalized.[11][12] The first things to change were the names of streets and stores: "Blue Sky Clothes Store" to "Defending Mao Zedong Clothes Store", "Cai E Road" to "Red Guards Road", and so forth.

In Beijing, the name of the road where the embassy of the Soviet Union was stationed was changed to "Anti-revisionism Road."[10] The Peking Union Medical College Hospital, founded in 1921 by the Rockefeller Foundation, was renamed "Anti-Imperialist Hospital".[13]

In Huangpu district of Shanghai, the city's commercial center, Red Guards tore down 93 percent of shop signboards (2,166 of 2,328), and renamed restaurants, schools and hospitals.[11] Red Guards also took Nanjing Road as their revolutionary headquarters in Shanghai, renaming it the "Anti-Imperialism Street".[11]

Many people across China also changed their given names to revolutionary slogans, such as Zhihong (志红, "Determined Red"), Jige (继革, "Following the Revolution") and Weidong (卫东, "Safeguard the Orient or Protect Mao").[6][12][14]

Public sites

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See also: Antireligious campaigns of the Chinese Communist Party
The Forbidden City in Beijing was renamed the "Palace of Blood and Tears".[15]

The Cemetery of Confucius was attacked in November 1966, during the Cultural Revolution, when it was visited and vandalized by a team of Red Guards from Beijing Normal University, led by Tan Houlan.[16][17] The corpse of the 76th-generation Duke Yansheng was removed from its grave and hung naked from a tree in front of the palace during the desecration of the cemetery in the Cultural Revolution.[18]

The Chinese government stopped short of endorsing the physical destruction of products. In fact, the government protected significant archaeological discoveries made during the Cultural Revolution, such as the Mawangdui, the Leshan Giant Buddha and the Terracotta Army.[8] Upon learning that Red Guards were approaching the Forbidden City, Premier Zhou Enlai ordered the gates shut immediately and deployed the People's Liberation Army against the Red Guards. After this incident, Zhou attempted to create a more peaceful code of conduct for the Red Guards, with the support of cadres Tao Zhu, Li Fuchuan, and Chen Yi. This plan was foiled by the ultra-leftists Kang Sheng, Jiang Qing, and Zhang Chunqiao. Although many of Zhou's other initiatives to stem the destruction failed because of their or Mao's own opposition, he did succeed in preventing Beijing from being renamed "East Is Red City" and the Chinese guardian lions in front of Tian'anmen Square from being replaced with statues of Mao.[19]

In later stages of the campaign, examples of Chinese architecture were destroyed, classical literature and Chinese paintings were torn apart, and Chinese temples were desecrated.[6]

Personal harassment and private properties

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Other manifestations of the Red Guard campaign included giving speeches, posting big-character posters, and harassment of people, such as intellectuals,[20] who defiantly demonstrated the Four Olds.[5] This escalated from accosting people in the streets due to their dress or hairstyle, to widespread murder, assault, arbitrary detention and the ransacking of private homes.[11] Red Guards broke into the homes of the wealthy and destroyed paintings, books, and furniture; all were items that they viewed as part of the Four Olds.[21]

Many artists and other cultural professionals were persecuted by vigilantes, although some cultural advances came about because of the period, including the integration of "new" western instruments and ballet into Peking opera.[citation needed]

Attacks on ethnic minorities and book burnings

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Languages and customs of ethnic minorities in China were labeled as part of the Four Olds and texts in ethnic languages were burned.[22][23][24] Bilingual education was suppressed.[22]

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  • This statue of the Yongle Emperor was originally carved in stone, and was destroyed in the Cultural Revolution; a metal replica is in its place
    This statue of the Yongle Emperor was originally carved in stone, and was destroyed in the Cultural Revolution; a metal replica is in its place
  • The remains of the 8th century Buddhist monk Huineng were attacked during the Cultural Revolution
    The remains of the 8th century Buddhist monk Huineng were attacked during the Cultural Revolution
  • The Cemetery of Confucius was attacked by Red Guards in November 1966[25][26]
    The Cemetery of Confucius was attacked by Red Guards in November 1966[25][26]
  • A frieze damaged during the Cultural Revolution, originally from a garden house of a rich imperial official in Suzhou
    A frieze damaged during the Cultural Revolution, originally from a garden house of a rich imperial official in Suzhou
  • The Peking Union Medical College Hospital was renamed "Anti-Imperialist Hospital" by Red Guards
    The Peking Union Medical College Hospital was renamed "Anti-Imperialist Hospital" by Red Guards
  • A damaged statue of the Buddha
    A damaged statue of the Buddha

Aftermath

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Appraisal of damage

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See also: Boluan Fanzheng

No official statistics have ever been produced by the Communist party in terms of reporting the actual cost of damage. By 1978, many stories of death and destruction caused by the Cultural Revolution had leaked out of China and became known worldwide.[27]

Preservation

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During and after the Cultural Revolution, efforts were made to protect Chinese cultural artifacts. Shanghai officials intervened in Red Guard house searches, relocating items to safety and documenting those that couldn't be moved for future restoration.[28] Post-Cultural Revolution, there was a renewed effort to preserve cultural heritage, with initiatives like the Lost Cultural Relics Recovery Program and the establishment of the State Administration of Cultural Heritage to protect and manage historical sites and artifacts.[29]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ 旧思想; jiù sīxiǎng
    旧文化; jiù wénhuà
    旧风俗; jiù fēngsú
    旧习惯; jiù xíguàn

References

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  1. ^ Melville, Sheila (7 September 2011). "China's Reluctant Emperor". The New York Times. Retrieved 5 April 2024.
  2. ^ Spence, Jonathan D. (1999) [1990]. The Search for Modern China (2nd ill. ed.). New York: W. W. Norton. p. 575. ISBN 978-0-393-97351-8.
  3. ^ Wang, Youqin (2001). "Student Attacks Against Teachers: The Revolution of 1966" (PDF). University of Chicago. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 April 2020.
  4. ^ Law, Kam-yee, ed. (2003). The Chinese cultural revolution reconsidered: beyond purge and holocaust. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-73835-1.
  5. ^ a b c Li, Gucheng. A Glossary of Political Terms of The People's Republic of China. Chinese University Press. p. 427.
  6. ^ a b c d e Lu, Xing (2004). Rhetoric of the Chinese Cultural Revolution: The Impact on Chinese Thought, Culture, and Communication. University of South Carolina Press. pp. 61–62. doi:10.2307/j.ctv10tq3n6. ISBN 978-1-64336-147-5. JSTOR j.ctv10tq3n6.
  7. ^ Coderre, Laurence (2021). Newborn socialist things : materiality in Maoist China. Durham: Duke University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-4780-2161-2. OCLC 1250021710.
  8. ^ a b Gao, Mobo (2008). The Battle for China's Past: Mao and the Cultural Revolution. Pluto Press. pp. 21–22.
  9. ^ Kraus, Richard Curt (January 2012). "The Cultural Revolution: A Very Short Introduction". Oxford Academic. Retrieved 22 June 2023.
  10. ^ a b c Russo, Alessandro (2020). Cultural Revolution and revolutionary culture. Durham: Duke University Press. p. 157. ISBN 978-1-4780-1218-4. OCLC 1156439609.
  11. ^ a b c d Howlett, Jonathan J. (August 2022). "Ordering the city: revolution, modernity and road renaming in Shanghai, 1949–1966". Urban History. 49 (3): 612–630. doi:10.1017/S0963926821000249. ISSN 0963-9268.  This article incorporates text from this source, which is available under the CC BY 4.0 license.
  12. ^ a b Ou, Jason (13 May 2016). "7 questions about China's Cultural Revolution answered". The Straits Times. ISSN 0585-3923. Retrieved 22 June 2023.
  13. ^ "PEKING HOSPITAL TAKES BACK PRE-1949 NAME". The New York Times. 9 June 1985. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 22 June 2023.
  14. ^ Wren, Christopher S. (9 December 1984). "A PROBLEM FOR THE CHINESE: MILLIONS OF NAMESAKES". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 22 June 2023.
  15. ^ "Tear Down the Palace!". China Heritage Quarterly. Archived from the original on 10 March 2023.
  16. ^ Ma, Aiping; Si, Lina; Zhang, Hongfei (2009), "The evolution of cultural tourism: The example of Qufu, the birthplace of Confucius", in Ryan, Chris; Gu, Huimin (eds.), Tourism in China: destination, cultures and communities, Routledge advances in tourism, Taylor & Francis US, p. 183, ISBN 978-0-415-99189-6
  17. ^ Asiaweek, Volume 10
  18. ^ Jeni Hung (5 April 2003). "Children of confucius". The Spectator. Archived from the original on 21 March 2006. Retrieved 4 March 2007.
  19. ^ Macfarquhar, Roderick; Schoenhals, Michael (2008). Mao's Last Revolution. Harvard University Press. pp. 118–119. ISBN 9780674027480.
  20. ^ Wen, Chihua. Madsen, Richard P. [1995] (1995). The Red Mirror: Children of China's Cultural Revolution. Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-2488-2
  21. ^ Kort, Michael G. (1994). China Under Communism. Brookfield, MN: Millsbrook Press. p. 123. ISBN 9781562944506.
  22. ^ a b Qingxia, Dai; Yan, Dong (March 2001). "The Historical Evolution of Bilingual Education for China's Ethnic Minorities". Chinese Education & Society. 34 (2): 7–53. doi:10.2753/CED1061-193234027. ISSN 1061-1932. Ethnic languages were repudiated as one of the "four olds" and large numbers of books and documents pertaining to ethnic languages were burned.
  23. ^ Wu, Jiaping (May 2014). "The Rise of Ethnicity under China's Market Reforms". International Journal of Urban and Regional Research. 38 (3): 967–984. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2427.2012.01179.x. ISSN 0309-1317. Campaigns of 'class eradication' became more radical during the Cultural Revolution (1966–76) and had a disastrous effect on ethnic culture. Ethnic traditions were seen as part of the 'four olds' (old ideas, customs, culture and habits; in Chinese, sijiu) that had to be destroyed.
  24. ^ Chunli, Xia (2007). "From Discourse Politics to Rule of Law: A Constructivist Framework for Understanding Regional Ethnic Autonomy in China". International Journal on Minority and Group Rights. 14 (4): 399–424. doi:10.1163/138548707X247392. ISSN 1385-4879. JSTOR 24675396. Traditional minority designs and colourful lace were marked as "four olds" (sijiu) and burnt.
  25. ^ Asiaweek, Volume 10. 1984. Archived from the original on 27 April 2016. Retrieved 27 June 2015.
  26. ^ Jeni Hung (5 April 2003). "Children of Confucius". The Spectator. Archived from the original on 21 March 2006. Retrieved 4 March 2007.
  27. ^ Roberts, Richard H. [1995] (1995). Religion and the Transformations of Capitalism. Routledge publishing. ISBN 0-415-11917-0
  28. ^ Ho, Denise Y. (2011). "Revolutionizing Antiquity: The Shanghai Cultural Bureaucracy in the Cultural Revolution, 1966–1968". The China Quarterly. 207: 691–692. doi:10.1017/S0305741011000713. Retrieved 1 June 2024.
  29. ^ Dolan, Thomas (2009). Berkshire Encyclopedia of China: Modern and Historic Views of the World's Newest and Oldest Global Power, Volume 5. Berkshire Publishing Group, 2009. pp. 108–109.
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