Jump to content

Riparian zone

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Riparian buffer zones)

"Riparian" redirects here. For the legal doctrine, see riparian water rights.
Not to be confused with Ripuarian language.
A riparian area is the transition from the aquatic area to the upland area. Vegetation is expected to change from species adapted to wetter sites near the channel to species adapted to drier sites in the upland, with a mixture of species occurring in between. In this example, an assessment of riparian function would consider the riparian areas, mixed riparian/upland areas, and aquatic area in the reach. Not all riparian areas have all of these features.[1]

A riparian zone or riparian area is the interface between land and a river or stream.[2] In some regions, the terms riparian woodland, riparian forest, riparian buffer zone, riparian corridor, and riparian strip are used to characterize a riparian zone. The word riparian is derived from Latin ripa, meaning "river bank".[3]

Riparian is also the proper nomenclature for one of the terrestrial biomes of the Earth.[4] Plant habitats and communities along the river margins and banks are called riparian vegetation, characterized by hydrophilic plants.[5] Riparian zones are important in ecology, environmental resource management, and civil engineering[6] because of their role in soil conservation, their habitat biodiversity, and the influence they have on terrestrial and semiaquatic fauna as well as aquatic ecosystems, including grasslands, woodlands, wetlands, and even non-vegetative areas.[7]

Riparian zones may be natural or engineered for soil stabilization or restoration.[8] These zones are important natural biofilters, protecting aquatic environments from excessive sedimentation, polluted surface runoff, and erosion.[9] They supply shelter and food for many aquatic animals and shade that limits stream temperature change.[10] When riparian zones are damaged by construction, agriculture or silviculture, biological restoration can take place, usually by human intervention in erosion control and revegetation.[11] If the area adjacent to a watercourse has standing water or saturated soil for as long as a season, it is normally termed a wetland because of its hydric soil characteristics. Because of their prominent role in supporting a diversity of species,[12] riparian zones are often the subject of national protection in a biodiversity action plan. These are also known as a "plant or vegetation waste buffer".[13]

Research shows that riparian zones are instrumental in water quality improvement for both surface runoff and water flowing into streams through subsurface or groundwater flow.[14][15] Riparian zones can play a role in lowering nitrate contamination in surface runoff, such as manure and other fertilizers from agricultural fields, that would otherwise damage ecosystems and human health.[16] Particularly, the attenuation of nitrate or denitrification of the nitrates from fertilizer in this buffer zone is important.[17] The use of wetland riparian zones shows a particularly high rate of removal of nitrate entering a stream and thus has a place in agricultural management.[18] Also in terms of carbon transport from terrestrial ecosystems to aquatic ecosystems, riparian groundwater can play an important role.[19] As such, a distinction can be made between parts of the riparian zone that connect large parts of the landscape to streams, and riparian areas with more local groundwater contributions.[20]

Characteristics

[edit]

Key features of a typical riparian forest include

[edit]

1. Location and Hydrological Context

[edit]

   - Riparian forests are primarily situated alongside rivers or streams, with varying degrees of proximity to the water's edge.

   - These ecosystems are intimately connected with dynamic water flow and soil processes, influencing their characteristics.

2.Diverse Ecosystem Components

[edit]

   - Riparian forests feature a diverse combination of elements, including:

   - Mesic terrestrial vegetation (vegetation adapted to moist conditions).

   - Dependent animal life, relying on the riparian environment for habitat and resources.

   - Local microclimate influenced by the presence of water bodies.

3. Distinct Vegetation Structure

[edit]

   - The vegetation in riparian forests exhibits a multi-layered structure.

   - Moisture-dependent trees are the dominant feature, giving these forests a unique appearance, especially in savanna regions.

   - These moisture-dependent trees define the landscape, accompanied by a variety of mesic understorey, shrub, and ground cover species.

4. Floristic Composition

[edit]

   - Riparian forests often host plant species that have high moisture requirements.

   - The flora typically includes species native to the region, adapted to the moist conditions provided by proximity to water bodies.

In summary, riparian forests are characterized by their location along waterways, their intricate interplay with water and soil dynamics, a diverse array of vegetation layers, and a plant composition favoring moisture-dependent species.

A well-preserved natural riparian strip on a tributary to Lake Erie

Roles and functions

[edit]
Thick riparian vegetation along the Pisuerga River in Spain

Riparian zones dissipate stream energy.[21] The meandering curves of a river, combined with vegetation and root systems, slow the flow of water, which reduces soil erosion and flood damage.[22] Sediment is trapped, reducing suspended solids to create less turbid water, replenish soils, and build stream banks.[23] Pollutants are filtered from surface runoff, enhancing water quality via biofiltration.[3][24][25]

The riparian zones also provide wildlife habitat, increased biodiversity, and wildlife corridors,[26] enabling aquatic and riparian organisms to move along river systems avoiding isolated communities.[27] Riparian vegetation can also provide forage for wildlife and livestock.[23]

Riparian zones are also important for the fish that live within rivers, such as brook and charr.[28] Impacts on riparian zones can affect fish, and restoration is not always sufficient to recover fish populations.[29][30]

They provide native landscape irrigation by extending seasonal or perennial flows of water.[31] Nutrients from terrestrial vegetation (e.g. plant litter and insect drop) are transferred to aquatic food webs, and are a vital source of energy in aquatic food webs.[32] The vegetation surrounding the stream helps to shade the water, mitigating water temperature changes. Thinning of riparian zones has been observed to cause increased maximum temperatures, higher fluctuations in temperature, and elevated temperatures being observed more frequently and for longer periods of time.[33] Extreme changes in water temperature can have lethal effects on fish and other organisms in the area.[32] The vegetation also contributes wood debris to streams, which is important to maintaining geomorphology.[34]

Riparian zones also act as important buffers against nutrient loss in the wake of natural disasters, such as hurricanes.[35][36] Many of the characteristics of riparian zones that reduce the inputs of nitrogen from agricultural runoff also retain the necessary nitrogen in the ecosystem after hurricanes threaten to dilute and wash away critical nutrients.[37][38][39]

From a social aspect, riparian zones contribute to nearby property values through amenity and views, and they improve enjoyment for footpaths and bikeways through supporting foreshoreway networks. Space is created for riparian sports such as fishing, swimming, and launching for vessels and paddle craft.[40]

The riparian zone acts as a sacrificial erosion buffer to absorb impacts of factors including climate change, increased runoff from urbanization, and increased boat wake without damaging structures located behind a setback zone.[41][42]

"Riparian zones play a crucial role in preserving the vitality of streams and rivers, especially when faced with challenges stemming from catchment land use, including agricultural and urban development. These changes in land utilization can exert adverse impacts on the health of streams and rivers and, consequently, contribute to a decline in their reproductive rates."

Role in logging

[edit]

The protection of riparian zones is often a consideration in logging operations.[43] The undisturbed soil, soil cover, and vegetation provide shade, plant litter, and woody material and reduce the delivery of soil eroded from the harvested area.[44] Factors such as soil types and root structures, climatic conditions, and vegetative cover determine the effectiveness of riparian buffering. Activities associated with logging, such as sediment input, introduction or removal of species, and the input of polluted water all degrade riparian zones.[45]

Vegetation

[edit]
Riparian zone along Trout Creek in the Trout Creek Mountains, part of the Burns Bureau of Land Management District in southeastern Oregon. The creek provides critical habitat for trout.

The assortment of riparian zone trees varies from those of wetlands and typically consists of plants that are either emergent aquatic plants, or herbs, trees and shrubs that thrive in proximity to water.[46] In South Africa's fynbos biome, Riparian ecosystem are heavily invaded by alien woody plants.[47] Riparian plant communities along lowland streams exhibit remarkable species diversity, driven by the unique environmental gradients inherent to these ecosystems.[48]

Riparian zones in Africa

[edit]

Riparian forest can be found in Benin, West Africa. In Benin, where the savanna ecosystem prevails, "riparian forests" include various types of woodlands, such as semi-deciduous forests, dry forests, open forests, and woodland savannas. These woodlands can be found alongside rivers and streams.[49] In Nigeria, you can also discover riparian zones within the Ibadan region of Oyo state. Ibadan, one of the oldest towns in Africa, covers a total area of 3,080 square kilometers and is characterized by a network of perennial water streams that create these valuable riparian zones.[49] In the research conducted by Adeoye et al. (2012) on land use changes in Southwestern Nigeria, it was observed that 46.18 square kilometers of the area are occupied by water bodies. Additionally, most streams and rivers in this region are accompanied by riparian forests. Nevertheless, the study also identified a consistent reduction in the extent of these riparian forests over time, primarily attributed to a significant deforestation rate.[50] In Nigeria, according to Momodu et al. (2011), there has been a notable decline of about 50% in the riparian forest coverage within the period of 1978 to 2000. This reduction is primarily attributed to alterations in land use and land cover. Additionally, their research indicates that if current trends continue, the riparian forests may face further depletion, potentially leading to their complete disappearance by the year 2040.[50] Riparian zones can also be found in Cape Agulhas region of South Africa.[51] Riparian areas along South African rivers have experienced significant deterioration as a result of human activities. Similar to many other developed and developing areas worldwide, the extensive building of dams in upstream river areas and the extraction of water for irrigation purposes have led to diminished water flows and changes in the riparian environment.[8]

North America

[edit]

Water's edge

[edit]

Herbaceous Perennial:

Inundated riparian zone

[edit]

Herbaceous Perennial:[52][unreliable source?]

Western

[edit]

In western North America and the Pacific coast, the riparian vegetation includes:

Riparian trees[53]

Riparian shrubs[53]

Other plants

Asia

[edit]

In Asia there are different types of riparian vegetation,[54] but the interactions between hydrology and ecology are similar as occurs in other geographic areas.[55]

Australia

[edit]
A riparian zone in Western Sydney

Typical riparian vegetation in temperate New South Wales, Australia include:

Central Europe

[edit]

Typical riparian zone trees in Central Europe include:

Repair and restoration

[edit]

Land clearing followed by floods can quickly erode a riverbank, taking valuable grasses and soils downstream, and later allowing the sun to bake the land dry.[56][57] Riparian zones can be restored through relocation (of human-made products), rehabilitation, and time.[45] Natural Sequence Farming techniques have been used in the Upper Hunter Valley of New South Wales, Australia, in an attempt to rapidly restore eroded farms to optimum productivity.[58]

The Natural Sequence Farming technique involves placing obstacles in the water's pathway to lessen the energy of a flood, and help the water to deposit soil and seep into the flood zone.[59] Another technique is to quickly establish ecological succession by encouraging fast-growing plants such as "weeds" (pioneer species) to grow.[60] These may spread along the watercourse and cause environmental degradation, but may stabilize the soil, place carbon into the ground, and protect the land from drying. The weeds will improve the streambeds so that trees and grasses can return, and later ideally replace the weeds.[61][62] There are several other techniques used by government and non-government agencies to address riparian and streambed degradation, ranging from the installation of bed control structures such as log sills to the use of pin groynes or rock emplacement.[63] Other possible approaches include control of invasive species, monitoring of herbivore activity, and cessation of human activity in a particular zone followed by natural re-vegetation.[64] Conservation efforts have also encouraged incorporating the value of ecosystem services provided by riparian zones into management plans, as these benefits have traditionally been absent in the consideration and designing of these plans.[64][65]

  • A rocky, brown stream bank mostly bare of vegetation, with a few aspen trees in the background
    Cottonwood Creek riparian area in southeastern Oregon before restoration, 1988
  • The same stream bank lined with short grasses, with more aspen trees in the background
    Cottonwood Creek riparian area during recovery, 2000
  • The same stream bank lined with higher grasses that obscure most of the water, with a thicker aspen grove behind
    Cottonwood Creek riparian area after restoration, 2002

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Dickard, M., M. Gonzalez, W. Elmore, S. Leonard, D. Smith, S. Smith, J. Staats, P. Summers, D. Weixelman, S. Wyman (2015). "Riparian area management: Proper functioning condition assessment for lotic areas". Technical Reference 1737-15. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Denver, CO.
  2. ^ "Riparian Areas Environmental Uniqueness, Functions, and Values". Archived from the original on 11 June 2020.
  3. ^ a b Read "Riparian Areas: Functions and Strategies for Management" at NAP.edu. 2002. doi:10.17226/10327. ISBN 978-0-309-08295-2.
  4. ^ "Riparian Zone: Definition and Characteristics". Biology Dictionary. 17 May 2018. Retrieved 21 May 2023.
  5. ^ Read "Riparian Areas: Functions and Strategies for Management" at NAP.edu. 2002. doi:10.17226/10327. ISBN 978-0-309-08295-2.
  6. ^ Burdon, Francis J.; Ramberg, Ellinor; Sargac, Jasmina; Forio, Marie Anne Eurie; de Saeyer, Nancy; Mutinova, Petra Thea; Moe, Therese Fosholt; Pavelescu, Mihaela Oprina; Dinu, Valentin; Cazacu, Constantin; Witing, Felix; Kupilas, Benjamin; Grandin, Ulf; Volk, Martin; Rîşnoveanu, Geta (April 2020). "Assessing the Benefits of Forested Riparian Zones: A Qualitative Index of Riparian Integrity Is Positively Associated with Ecological Status in European Streams". Water. 12 (4): 1178. doi:10.3390/w12041178. hdl:1854/LU-8662065. ISSN 2073-4441.
  7. ^ "IUFRO: 8.01.05 - Riparian and coastal ecosystems / 8.01.00 - Forest ecosystem functions / 8.00.00 - Forest Environment". www.iufro.org. Retrieved 21 May 2023.
  8. ^ a b "Riparian Ecosystem - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 21 May 2023.
  9. ^ Gregory, Stanley V.; Swanson, Frederick J.; McKee, W. Arthur; Cummins, Kenneth W. (1991). "An Ecosystem Perspective of Riparian Zones". BioScience. 41 (8): 540–551. doi:10.2307/1311607. ISSN 0006-3568. JSTOR 1311607.
  10. ^ "Riparian zone - NatureSpots App - Let's explore Nature together". www.naturespots.net. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
  11. ^ "Riparian Zone - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 21 May 2023.
  12. ^ "The Ecology of Interfaces—Riparian Zones" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 November 2018. Retrieved 11 June 2020.
  13. ^ "Riparian zone - NatureSpots App - Let's explore Nature together". www.naturespots.net. Retrieved 21 May 2023.
  14. ^ Dosskey, Michael G.; Vidon, Philippe; Gurwick, Noel P.; Allan, Craig J.; Duval, Tim P.; Lowrance, Richard (April 2010). "The Role of Riparian Vegetation in Protecting and Improving Chemical Water Quality in Streams 1: The Role of Riparian Vegetation in Protecting and Improving Chemical Water Quality in Streams". JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association. 46 (2): 261–277. doi:10.1111/j.1752-1688.2010.00419.x. S2CID 1485368.
  15. ^ Tomer, Mark D.; Dosskey, Michael G.; Burkart, Michael R.; James, David E.; Helmers, Matthew J.; Eisenhauer, Dean E. (2005). "Placement of riparian forest buffers to improve water quality". In: Brooks, K.N. And Ffolliot, P.F. (Eds) Moving Agroforestry into the Mainstream. Proc. 9th N. Am. Agroforest. Conf. Rochester, MN. 12–15 June 2005.
  16. ^ Pedraza, Sara; Clerici, Nicola; Zuluaga Gaviria, Jennifer D.; Sanchez, Adriana (January 2021). "Global Research on Riparian Zones in the XXI Century: A Bibliometric Analysis". Water. 13 (13): 1836. doi:10.3390/w13131836. ISSN 2073-4441.
  17. ^ Chukwuka, Azubuike Victor; Ogbeide, Ozekeke (21 April 2021), "Riparian-Buffer Loss and Pesticide Incidence in Freshwater Matrices of Ikpoba River (Nigeria): Policy Recommendations for the Protection of Tropical River Basins", River Basin Management - Sustainability Issues and Planning Strategies, IntechOpen, ISBN 978-1-83968-131-8, retrieved 21 May 2023
  18. ^ Lowrance, Richard; Todd, Robert; Fail, Joseph; Hendrickson, Ole; Leonard, Ralph; Asmussen, Loris (1984). "Riparian Forests as Nutrient Filters in Agricultural Watersheds". BioScience. 34 (6): 374–377. doi:10.2307/1309729. ISSN 0006-3568. JSTOR 1309729.
  19. ^ Ledesma, José L. J.; Grabs, Thomas; Bishop, Kevin H.; Schiff, Sherry L.; Köhler, Stephan J. (August 2015). "Potential for long-term transfer of dissolved organic carbon from riparian zones to streams in boreal catchments". Global Change Biology. 21 (8): 2963–2979. Bibcode:2015GCBio..21.2963L. doi:10.1111/gcb.12872. PMID 25611952.
  20. ^ Leach, J. A.; Lidberg, W.; Kuglerová, L.; Peralta-Tapia, A.; Ågren, A.; Laudon, H. (July 2017). "Evaluating topography-based predictions of shallow lateral groundwater discharge zones for a boreal lake-stream system". Water Resources Research. 53 (7): 5420–5437. Bibcode:2017WRR....53.5420L. doi:10.1002/2016WR019804. S2CID 134913198.
  21. ^ "The Importance of Streamside Plants & Trees | Shore Stewards | Washington State University". Shore Stewards. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
  22. ^ Christos (23 January 2017). "What are Riparian Areas and Why are They Important?". Trout Unlimited Canada. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
  23. ^ a b "Riparian Mitigation – Mitico". Retrieved 22 May 2023.
  24. ^ "The Riparian Zone". slco.org. 18 August 2016. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
  25. ^ Swanson, S.; Kozlowski, D.; Hall, R.; Heggem, D.; Lin, J. (1 March 2017). "Riparian proper functioning condition assessment to improve watershed management for water quality". Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 72 (2): 168–182. doi:10.2489/jswc.72.2.168. ISSN 0022-4561. PMC 6145829. PMID 30245529.
  26. ^ "Riparian Habitat | Wildlife Heritage Foundation". www.wildlifeheritage.org. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
  27. ^ Kjartanson, Meghan. "Riparian zones". Forestry and Land Scotland. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
  28. ^ Read "Riparian Areas: Functions and Strategies for Management" at NAP.edu. 2002. doi:10.17226/10327. ISBN 978-0-309-08295-2.
  29. ^ Sievers, Michael; Hale, Robin; Morrongiello, John R. (March 2017). "Do trout respond to riparian change? A meta-analysis with implications for restoration and management". Freshwater Biology. 62 (3): 445–457. Bibcode:2017FrBio..62..445S. doi:10.1111/fwb.12888. hdl:10072/409161.
  30. ^ Sabo, John L.; Sponseller, Ryan; Dixon, Mark; Gade, Kris; Harms, Tamara; Heffernan, Jim; Jani, Andrea; Katz, Gabrielle; Soykan, Candan; Watts, James; Welter, Jill (2005). "Riparian Zones Increase Regional Species Richness by Harboring Different, Not More, Species". Ecology. 86 (1): 56–62. Bibcode:2005Ecol...86...56S. doi:10.1890/04-0668. hdl:10161/8362. ISSN 0012-9658. JSTOR 3450987.
  31. ^ "Chapter 8 : Riparian Zone | Friends of Reservoirs". www.friendsofreservoirs.com. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
  32. ^ a b Pusey, Bradley J.; Arthington, Angela H. (2003). "Importance of the riparian zone to the conservation and management of freshwater fish: a review". Marine and Freshwater Research. 54 (1): 1–16. doi:10.1071/mf02041. hdl:10072/6041. ISSN 1448-6059.
  33. ^ Roon, David A.; Dunham, Jason B.; Groom, Jeremiah D. (16 February 2021). "Shade, light, and stream temperature responses to riparian thinning in second-growth redwood forests of northern California". PLOS ONE. 16 (2): e0246822. Bibcode:2021PLoSO..1646822R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0246822. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 7886199. PMID 33592001.
  34. ^ Vidon, Philippe G. F.; Hill, Alan R. (15 June 2004). "Landscape controls on the hydrology of stream riparian zones". Journal of Hydrology. 292 (1): 210–228. Bibcode:2004JHyd..292..210V. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2004.01.005. ISSN 0022-1694.
  35. ^ "Establishment and restoration of riparian buffers — English". climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
  36. ^ "Riparian Buffers for Field Crops, Hay, and Pastures". extension.psu.edu. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
  37. ^ McDowell, William H. (1 December 2001). "Hurricanes, people, and riparian zones: controls on nutrient losses from forested Caribbean watersheds". Forest Ecology and Management. New Directions in Tropical Forest Research. 154 (3): 443–451. doi:10.1016/S0378-1127(01)00514-X. ISSN 0378-1127.
  38. ^ "Riparian Buffers - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
  39. ^ Wu, Shaoteng; Bashir, Muhammad Amjad; Raza, Qurat-Ul-Ain; Rehim, Abdur; Geng, Yucong; Cao, Lei (2023). "Application of riparian buffer zone in agricultural non-point source pollution control—A review". Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems. 7. doi:10.3389/fsufs.2023.985870. ISSN 2571-581X.
  40. ^ "Importance of Riparian Buffers". dep.wv.gov. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
  41. ^ Ma, Maohua (2016), Finlayson, C. Max; Everard, Mark; Irvine, Kenneth; McInnes, Robert J. (eds.), "Riparian Buffer Zone for Wetlands", The Wetland Book: I: Structure and Function, Management and Methods, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 1–9, doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6172-8_53-7, ISBN 978-94-007-6172-8, retrieved 22 May 2023
  42. ^ "Riparian vegetation | environmentdata.org". www.environmentdata.org. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
  43. ^ "Forest Management in Riparian Areas". extension.unh.edu. Retrieved 27 August 2023.
  44. ^ Singh, Rinku; Tiwari, A. K.; Singh, G. S. (1 April 2021). "Managing riparian zones for river health improvement: an integrated approach". Landscape and Ecological Engineering. 17 (2): 195–223. doi:10.1007/s11355-020-00436-5. ISSN 1860-188X. S2CID 234186133.
  45. ^ a b Bren, L. J. (1 October 1993). "Riparian zone, stream, and floodplain issues: a review". Journal of Hydrology. 150 (2): 277–299. Bibcode:1993JHyd..150..277B. doi:10.1016/0022-1694(93)90113-N. ISSN 0022-1694.
  46. ^ "Beavers Ecosystem in Toronto". prezi.com. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
  47. ^ Ruwanza, S.; Gaertner, M.; Esler, K. J.; Richardson, D. M. (1 September 2013). "The effectiveness of active and passive restoration on recovery of indigenous vegetation in riparian zones in the Western Cape, South Africa: A preliminary assessment". South African Journal of Botany. 88: 132–141. doi:10.1016/j.sajb.2013.06.022. ISSN 0254-6299.
  48. ^ Garssen, Annemarie G.; Verhoeven, Jos T. A.; Soons, Merel B. (May 2014). "Effects of climate-induced increases in summer drought on riparian plant species: a meta-analysis". Freshwater Biology. 59 (5): 1052–1063. Bibcode:2014FrBio..59.1052G. doi:10.1111/fwb.12328. ISSN 0046-5070. PMC 4493900. PMID 26180267.
  49. ^ a b "Home | Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations". FAOHome. Retrieved 23 September 2023.
  50. ^ a b Borisade, Tolulope Victor; Odiwe, Anthony Ifechukwude; Akinwumiju, Akinola Shola; Uwalaka, Nelson Obinna; Orimoogunje, Oluwagbenga Isaac (1 September 2021). "Assessing the impacts of land use on riparian vegetation dynamics in Osun State, Nigeria". Trees, Forests and People. 5: 100099. doi:10.1016/j.tfp.2021.100099. ISSN 2666-7193.
  51. ^ "ScienceDirect.com | Science, health and medical journals, full text articles and books". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 26 September 2023.
  52. ^ "List of trees and plants". Archived from the original (xls) on 18 July 2011. Retrieved 29 September 2010.
  53. ^ a b Cooke, Sarah Spear (1997). A Field Guide to the Common Wetland Plants of Western Washington and Northwestern Oregon. Seattle, Washington: Seattle Audubon Society. ISBN 978-0-914516-11-8.
  54. ^ Zhao, Qinghe; Ding, Shengyan; Liu, Qian; Wang, Shuoqian; Jing, Yaru; Lu, Mengwen (13 August 2020). "Vegetation influences soil properties along riparian zones of the Beijiang River in Southern China". PeerJ. 8: e9699. doi:10.7717/peerj.9699. ISSN 2167-8359. S2CID 221653372.
  55. ^ "Riparian Vegetation Along the Middle and Lower Zones of the Chalakkudy River, Kerala, India" (PDF). Kerala Research Programme Centre for Development Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 March 2009. Retrieved 2 October 2009.
  56. ^ "Types of erosion". www.qld.gov.au. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
  57. ^ Dumbrovsky, Miroslav; Korsun, Svatopluk (21 November 2012), "Optimization of Soil Erosion and Flood Control Systems in the Process of Land Consolidation", Research on Soil Erosion, IntechOpen, ISBN 978-953-51-0839-9, retrieved 22 May 2023
  58. ^ Fryirs, Kirstie; Brierley, Gary J. (April 2010). "Antecedent controls on river character and behaviour in partly confined valley settings: Upper Hunter catchment, NSW, Australia". Geomorphology. 117 (1–2): 106–120. Bibcode:2010Geomo.117..106F. doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2009.11.015. ISSN 0169-555X.
  59. ^ "Riverbank Restoration | Helping farmers in Scotland | Farm Advisory Service". FAS. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
  60. ^ "Secondary Succession". VEDANTU. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
  61. ^ Connell, Joseph H.; Slatyer, Ralph O. (1977). "Mechanisms of Succession in Natural Communities and Their Role in Community Stability and Organization". The American Naturalist. 111 (982): 1119–1144. doi:10.1086/283241. ISSN 0003-0147. JSTOR 2460259. S2CID 3587878.
  62. ^ "Ecological Succession". Yennie Ho - Apes :*. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
  63. ^ "Ecological Weed Control". EcoFarming Daily. Retrieved 22 May 2023.
  64. ^ a b González, Eduardo; Felipe-Lucia, María R.; Bourgeois, Bérenger; Boz, Bruno; Nilsson, Christer; Palmer, Grant; Sher, Anna A. (1 July 2017). "Integrative conservation of riparian zones". Biological Conservation. Small Natural Features. 211: 20–29. Bibcode:2017BCons.211...20G. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2016.10.035. ISSN 0006-3207.
  65. ^ "Permaculture Design Principle 8 – Accelerating Succession and Evolution". Deep Green Permaculture. 18 June 2012. Retrieved 22 May 2023.

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Riparian forests.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Riparian_zone&oldid=1238717820"