Jump to content

Relationship quality

Add links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This page is focused on the psychological construct of relationship quality, referring to the perceived quality of a close relationship (i.e., romantic relationship, friendship, or family).

Relationship quality (sometimes used interchangeably with relationship satisfaction, relationship flourishing, or relationship happiness), in the context of close interpersonal relationships is generally defined as a reflection of a couple’s overall feelings towards their relationship[1]. More simply, it is the extent to which members in a relationship (romantic or otherwise) view their relationship as positive or negative[2][3].

The determinant of relationship quality is often a variety of self-reported evaluations of traits that make up relationship quality. For instance, feelings of closeness may be measured via questions that ask an individual to rate the extent to which they identify with statements. I.e., “I feel close to my partner”, “I am comfortable sharing personal thoughts and feelings with my partner”, etc. These questions are typically asked on a Likert scale and the average of those scores represents an individual’s feelings of closeness toward their partner. Some scales are considered unidimensional and attempt to directly measure the construct of relationship quality. Other scales, considered multidimensional, repeat this process for other hypothesized components (e.g., closeness and satisfaction) before aggregating dimensions into a representative “relationship quality” score.

Historically, relationship quality has been the most commonly studied in the context of intimate romantic relationships[4]. More recently, the study of relationship quality has extended to include other types of close relationships (see: friendships, family, sibling, parent). However, it must be noted that there is not always agreement among scholars about what domains should be included in the measurement of relationship quality, even within the different types of close relationships[5][6][7]. Despite this, relationship quality and its predictors have been of popular interest to relationship scholars due to the range of, psychological, and relational outcomes that high quality relationships have been positively linked and associated with[8].

Theoretical Perspectives on Relationship Quality

[edit]

Relationship quality has been explored through various theoretical frameworks that seek to explain its development and maintenance. Attachment theory posits that early bonding experiences with caregivers influence an individual's expectations and behaviors in close relationships, impacting their perception of relationship quality. Similarly, social exchange theory suggests that individuals evaluate relationship quality based on perceived rewards and costs, such as emotional support versus conflict. Another influential framework is the investment model, which emphasizes the role of commitment, satisfaction, and the perceived availability of alternatives in determining relationship quality. These theoretical approaches highlight the complex interplay of emotional, cognitive, and contextual factors in shaping the perceived quality of interpersonal connections.

Relationship quality in romantic partners

[edit]

Measuring relationship quality

[edit]

Most early literature attempted to measure romantic relationship quality by centering around two approaches. While both used self-reports of how individuals perceived their relationships, the first attempted to quantify observable behaviors of relationship quality (e.g., frequency of conflict, engagement in relationship maintenance behaviors, time spent together) while the second focused on assessing internal perceptions of the relationship (e.g., perceived feelings of commitment, passion, or trust).[5][9] Today, many scales measuring relationship quality focus on the second approach, attempting to identify different psychological ‘domains’, ‘dimensions’, or ‘constructs’ that represent relationship quality as a whole when combined.

Proposed dimensions of romantic relationship quality

[edit]

Though there is differing agreement among scholars,[10] some of the common dimensions thought to underlie relationship quality include: satisfaction, commitment, trust, closeness, intimacy, passion, independence, and relationship flourishing.[5][8][11]

Some of the psychometric scales most commonly used by scholars to measure relationship quality in romantic couples include:

  1. Quality of Marriage Index (QMI):[12]
    1. A unidimensional scale of relationship quality which uses 6 questions designed to directly measure relationship quality. Example items include: “My relationship with my partner is very stable”, “We have a good relationship”, “I really feel like part of a team with my partner”.
  2. Perceived Relationship Quality Components (PRQC):[5]
    1. A multidimensional scale that conceptualizes relationship quality as being made up of relationship satisfaction, commitment, intimacy, trust, passion, and love.
  3. Relationship Flourishing Scale (RFS):[8]
    1. Developed by Blaine J. Fowers and others in order to address concerns that measures of relationship quality overly focused on individual perceptions of closeness or satisfaction without considering the growth of the relationship. The Relationship Flourishing Scale contains 12 questions used to assess meaning, personal growth, relational giving, and goal sharing within the relationship.
  4. Couple Satisfaction Index (CSI):[13]
    1. A 32 question measure of overall relationship satisfaction that also has shorter 16 item (CSI-16) and 4 item (CSI-4) versions. Example items include: “Do you enjoy your partner’s company?”, “How rewarding is your relationship with your partner?”, “In general, how often do you think that things between you and your partner are going well?”.

Outcomes of relationship quality in romantic couples

[edit]

A substantive body of work has focused on the importance of high quality romantic relationships being linked to physical and physiological health outcomes. Those in high quality relationships are less likely to be diagnosed with or symptomatic[14] for generalized anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, major depressive disorder, or bipolar disorder.[15][16] Those who perceive their relationship as being higher quality are typically happier, less stressed, and more satisfied with life when compared to those in low quality relationships.[17][18] Relationships have also been consistently shown to contribute strongly to physical health[19] with higher relationship quality in couples being associated with positive outcomes ranging from increased self-reported health ratings to decreased mortality, increased cardiovascular functioning, and increased wound healing rates.[16][19][20]

Relationship quality in friendships

[edit]

Like the composition of romantic relationship quality, friendship quality refers to the quality of a person’s individual friendships. While friendship quality has not been studied as extensively as research on romantic relationship quality, studies have been conducted to define friendship quality and examinations on its psychological and physiological benefits.[21]

As is the case in the study of romantic relationships, the precise components of friendship quality are not unanimously agreed upon by friendship researchers. Generally, a high-quality friendship is conceptualized as a friendship where both members engage in high, approximately equal, levels of prosocial behavior and feel comfortable in relying on one another as sources of social support.[7][22][23] Research on friendship quality tends to be separated into the study of adolescent friendships and the study of adult friendships.

Adolescent friendships

[edit]

The most common scale of adolescent friendship quality, the Friendship Qualities Scale, is composed of five dimensions: companionship, conflict, help, security, and closeness.[23] Friendship quality in adolescents has been linked with increased self-esteem, decreased loneliness,[24][25] better peer adjustment in schools, and more ability to cope with stress.[26][27] One investigation of adolescent friendships found that adolescents, age 12, who felt they had a high-quality best friend showed better sympathetic nervous system reactions to social rejections than those with lower quality friendships.[27] Other studies have further shown the importance of high-quality adolescent friendships to mental health, with children in high-quality friendships consistently reporting better mental health outcomes such as increased psychological well-being,[28] increased psychological resilience,[29] reduced anxiety, and reduced depressive symptoms.[30]

Adult friendships

[edit]

Measuring friendship quality in adults

[edit]

Research on friendship quality in adults bears many similarities with studies of romantic quality. Indeed, some studies measuring friendship quality directly adapt measures of romantic quality like the Marriage Quality index to a friendship context.[31] One of the only scales created specifically for the measurement of adult friendship quality that has seen widespread academic use is the McGill Friendship Questionnaire, published by ​​Mendelson and Aboud in 1999.[32] The scale conceptualizes friendship quality as the extent to which a friend is able to fulfill the following functions:

  1. Stimulating companionship (experiencing fun and excitement with a friend)
  2. Help (tangible and emotional support provided by a friend)
  3. Intimacy (feelings of closeness and trust within the friendship)
  4. Reliable Alliance (being able to count on a friend when they are needed)
  5. Self-Validation (boosting feelings of self-esteem and self-worth)
  6. Emotional Security (comfort provided by a friend in unfavorable situations)

Later work has examined the quality of an individual's network of friends, as opposed to satisfaction with a singular friend. Victor Kaufman at UCLA’s Marriage and Close Relationships Lab developed the Friendship Network Satisfaction (FNS) Scale in 2022. The FNS has two subscales of overall Friendship Satisfaction: closeness (feelings of being understood by friends, feeling close to friends, etc) and socialization (spending free time with friends, doing things with friends, etc). The scale is used to measure an individual’s satisfaction with their network of friends, rather than their satisfaction with any individual friend.[7]

Outcomes of Friendship Quality in Adults

[edit]

Friendship quality has shown to be a predictor of psychological well-being, happiness, and life satisfaction.[33][34][35][36][37][38] Individuals in high-quality friendships report reduced feelings of loneliness and depression.[39][40][41] University students with friendships of high quality have reported better adjustment to campus life and general psychosocial adjustment to adulthood.[42][43]

Individuals who reported greater satisfaction with their friendship networks also reported feeling more satisfied with life, having higher quality relationships with romantic partners and family members, and greater psychological well-being.[7]

Relationship quality in family relationships

[edit]

Measurements of relationship quality in family relationships sees a similar range of proposed methods and dimensions as romantic and friendship quality measurements. The number of questionnaires, indexes, and other scales used to assess children and their relationships is vast.[6][44] Some researchers[who?] measure overall family quality, or the felt satisfaction with the family as a whole[45]. Others[who?] have attempted to study relationship quality in the context of more specific familial ties, distinguishing between parent-child relationship quality and sibling-sibling relationship quality.[6][46][47]

One commonly used measure of assessing overall Family Quality is the Family Assessment Measure (FAM) developed by Skinner, Steinhauer, and Santa-Barbara in 1983.[45] It consists of three general components that are meant to be completed by all members of a family.

  1. A General Scale that focuses on the function and health of the family as a system
  2. A Dyadic Relationships Scale that examines the relationships between specific pairs of family members (i.e., with parent, with sibling)
  3. A Self-Rating scale which evaluates self-ratings of functioning in the family.

As a whole, the quality of family relationships has been found to influence family members' psychological well-being.[48] Those with better family relationships have been found to have reduced psychological distress, stronger resilience, more self-compassion, optimism, self-esteem, and a greater overall satisfaction.[49]

Parent-child relationship quality

[edit]

Notable about the measurement of parent-child relationship quality is that the child and parent will receive different scale questions. This is unlike measures of romantic, friendship, or sibling quality wherein both individuals of the dyad typically answer the same set of questions about their relationship[6][46]. “Parent” in this sense is only used broadly, and measures of parent-child relationship quality can be used to measure the relationship quality with any primary caregiver[6].

Though there is no universal agreement on the measurement of parent-child relationship quality, parent-child relationship quality is typically related to the balance of exchanging and receiving support and resulting emotional outcomes[6].

Examples of psychometric scales used to measure parent-child relationship quality include:

  1. Parent-Child Relationship Questionnaire (PCRQ):
    1. This questionnaire measures the relationship quality between a child and their parent via measurement of five domains: warmth, personal relationship, disciplinary action, power assertion, and possessiveness[46].
  2. Parent-Child Relationship Inventory (PCRI):
    1. The PCRI measures the relationship quality between parent and child via six domains: parental support, satisfaction with parent(ing), involvement, communication, limit setting, and autonomy[47].
  3. Parent-Child Interaction Questionnaire--revised (PACHIQ-R):
    1. The PACHIQ-R is split into seperate child and parent versions. The Child version is 25 items long while the Parent version is 21 items long. Both versions assess perceptions of conflict resolution and acceptance[50].

The quality of parent-child relationships has been linked to a number of relational outcomes for both parents and children, though the bulk of the literature has focused on child related outcomes in a clinical diagnostic context[6]. A number of studies have identified that parents with higher relationship quality towards their children experience a range of psychological benefits including happiness, well-being, and satisfaction with life[51][52][53].

Poor parent-child relationship quality has been associated with a host of negative health outcomes for the child, including propensity for engaging with unhealthy eating behaviors[54], increased chances of developing psychopathological illnesses[55], and worsened endocrinological processes related to oxytocin and cortisol productions [56][57]. The effect of low quality parent-child relationships on mental health especially has been seen to continue having deleterious mental health outcomes for the child into adulthood[58][59][60].

Positive parent-child relationship quality for children has been linked with greater functioning in future romantic relationships[61][62][63], academic achievement, and psychological and social well-being in college[64].

Sibling Relationship Quality

[edit]

Despite a lack of scholarly consensus on sibling relationship quality, common theoretical components of sibling relationship quality include warmth, conflict, and differential treatment from parents.[65][66] Warmth in this context refers to the positive elements of the sibling relationship (i.e., intimacy, closeness, companionship).[67] Perceived differences in treatment from parents has also been shown to be influential for sibling relationship quality, such that unequal displays of affection often worsen the relationship.[68]

Examples of psychometric scales used to measure sibling relationship quality include:

  1. Sibling Relationship Questionnaire (SRQ):
    1. The SRQ measures sibling relationship quality via dimensions of warmth/closeness, relative power/status, conflict, and rivalry.[69]
  2. Sibling Relationship Inventory (SRI)
    1. The Sibling Relationship Inventory measures sibling relationship quality via dimensions of affection, hostility, and rivalry[70].

Lower levels of relationship quality with siblings has been linked to increased conflict with the sibling, increased likelihood of developing depression,[71] and greater chances of becoming involved with drug use.[72][73] Sibling relationships of high quality have been associated with greater social competence, fewer problematic behaviors in adolescence, reduced depressive symptoms after stressful life events, and higher levels of psychological well-being.[68][73][74][75]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Kluwer, Esther S. (2010). "From Partnership to Parenthood: A Review of Marital Change Across the Transition to Parenthood". Journal of Family Theory & Review. 2 (2): 105–125. doi:10.1111/j.1756-2589.2010.00045.x. ISSN 1756-2570.
  2. ^ Morry, Marian M.; Reich, Tara; Kito, Mie (2010). "How do I see you relative to myself? Relationship quality as a predictor of self- and partner-enhancement within cross-sex friendships, dating relationships, and marriages". The Journal of Social Psychology. 150 (4): 369–392. doi:10.1080/00224540903365471. ISSN 0022-4545. PMID 20718222.
  3. ^ Farooqi, Saif R. (2014). "The Construct of Relationship Quality". Journal of Relationships Research. 5: e2. doi:10.1017/jrr.2014.2. ISSN 1838-0956.
  4. ^ Gilligan, Megan; Stocker, Clare M.; Jewsbury Conger, Katherine (2020). "Sibling Relationships in Adulthood: Research Findings and New Frontiers". Journal of Family Theory & Review. 12 (3): 305–320. doi:10.1111/jftr.12385. ISSN 1756-2570.
  5. ^ a b c d Fletcher, Garth J. O.; Simpson, Jeffry A.; Thomas, Geoff (2000). "The Measurement of Perceived Relationship Quality Components: A Confirmatory Factor Analytic Approach". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 26 (3): 340–354. doi:10.1177/0146167200265007. ISSN 0146-1672.
  6. ^ a b c d e f g Foran, Heather M.; Fraude, Iris; Kubb, Christian; Wamboldt, Marianne Z. (2020), Wampler, Karen S.; McWey, Lenore M. (eds.), "Assessment of the Parent-Child Relationship", The Handbook of Systemic Family Therapy (1 ed.), Wiley, pp. 35–54, doi:10.1002/9781119788393.ch2, ISBN 978-1-119-70218-4, retrieved 2024-11-22
  7. ^ a b c d Kaufman, Victor A.; Perez, Jacqueline C.; Reise, Steven P.; Bradbury, Thomas N.; Karney, Benjamin R. (2022). "Friendship Network Satisfaction: A multifaceted construct scored as a unidimensional scale". Journal of Social and Personal Relationships. 39 (2): 325–346. doi:10.1177/02654075211025639. ISSN 0265-4075. PMC 10723113. PMID 38107628.
  8. ^ a b c Fowers, Blaine J.; Laurenceau, Jean-Philippe; Penfield, Randall D.; Cohen, Laura M.; Lang, Samantha F.; Owenz, Meghan B.; Pasipanodya, Elizabeth (2016). "Enhancing relationship quality measurement: The development of the Relationship Flourishing Scale". Journal of Family Psychology. 30 (8): 997–1007. doi:10.1037/fam0000263. ISSN 1939-1293. PMID 27918187.
  9. ^ Fincham, F. D., Beach, S. R. H., & Kemp-Fincham, S. I. (1997). Marital quality: A new theoretical perspective. In R. J. Sternberg & M. Hojjat (Eds.), Satisfaction in close relationships (pp. 275–304). The Guilford Press.
  10. ^ CORE Lab (2024-02-22). "A Novel, Network-Based Approach to Assessing Romantic-Relationship Quality". Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science: 17456916231215248. doi:10.1177/17456916231215248. ISSN 1745-6924. PMID 38386418.
  11. ^ Hassebrauck, M., & Fehr, B. (2002). Dimensions of relationship quality. Personal Relationships, 9(3), 253–270. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6811.00017
  12. ^ Norton, Robert (1983). "Measuring Marital Quality: A Critical Look at the Dependent Variable". Journal of Marriage and Family. 45 (1): 141–151. doi:10.2307/351302. ISSN 0022-2445. JSTOR 351302.
  13. ^ Funk, J. L. & Rogge, R. D. (2007). Testing the ruler with item response theory: Increasing precision of measurement for relationship satisfaction with the Couples Satisfaction Index. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 572-583.
  14. ^ Cano, Annmarie; Gillis, Mazy; Heinz, Wanda; Geisser, Michael; Foran, Heather (2004). "Marital functioning, chronic pain, and psychological distress". Pain. 107 (1): 99–106. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2003.10.003. ISSN 0304-3959. PMC 2398709. PMID 14715395.
  15. ^ Whisman, M. A. (2007). Marital distress and DSM-IV psychiatric disorders in a population-based national survey. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 638–643. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.116.3.638
  16. ^ a b Miller, R. B., Hollist, C. S., Olsen, J., & Law, D. (2013). Marital quality and health over 20 years: A growth curve analysis. Journal of Marriage and Family, 75(3), 667–680. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12025
  17. ^ Carr, Deborah; Freedman, Vicki A.; Cornman, Jennifer C.; Schwarz, Norbert (2014-10-01). "Happy Marriage, Happy Life? Marital Quality and Subjective Well-Being in Later Life". Journal of Marriage and the Family. 76 (5): 930–948. doi:10.1111/jomf.12133. ISSN 0022-2445. PMC 4158846. PMID 25221351.
  18. ^ Cohen, Orna; Geron, Yael; Farchi, Alva (2009-06-23). "Marital Quality and Global Well-Being Among Older Adult Israeli Couples in Enduring Marriages". The American Journal of Family Therapy. 37 (4): 299–317. doi:10.1080/01926180802405968. ISSN 0192-6187.
  19. ^ a b Holt-Lunstad, Julianne; Smith, Timothy B.; Baker, Mark; Harris, Tyler; Stephenson, David (2015). "Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality: a meta-analytic review". Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science. 10 (2): 227–237. doi:10.1177/1745691614568352. ISSN 1745-6924. PMID 25910392.
  20. ^ Robles, Theodore F.; Slatcher, Richard B.; Trombello, Joseph M.; McGinn, Meghan M. (2014). "Marital quality and health: a meta-analytic review". Psychological Bulletin. 140 (1): 140–187. doi:10.1037/a0031859. ISSN 1939-1455. PMC 3872512. PMID 23527470.
  21. ^ Chopik, W. J. (2017). Associations among relational values, support, health, and well‐being across the adult lifespan. Personal Relationships, 24(2), 408–422. https://doi.org/10.1111/pere.12187
  22. ^ Berndt, Thomas J. (2002). "Friendship Quality and Social Development". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 11 (1): 7–10. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00157. ISSN 0963-7214.
  23. ^ a b Bukowski, William M.; Hoza, Betsy; Boivin, Michel (1994). "Measuring Friendship Quality During Pre- and Early Adolescence: The Development and Psychometric Properties of the Friendship Qualities Scale". Journal of Social and Personal Relationships. 11 (3): 471–484. doi:10.1177/0265407594113011. ISSN 0265-4075.
  24. ^ Lodder, Gerine M. A.; Scholte, Ron H. J.; Goossens, Luc; Verhagen, Maaike (2017-09-03). "Loneliness in Early Adolescence: Friendship Quantity, Friendship Quality, and Dyadic Processes". Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology. 46 (5): 709–720. doi:10.1080/15374416.2015.1070352. ISSN 1537-4416. PMID 26514598.
  25. ^ Nangle, Douglas W.; Erdley, Cynthia A.; Newman, Julie E.; Mason, Craig A.; Carpenter, Erika M. (2003-11-01). "Popularity, Friendship Quantity, and Friendship Quality: Interactive Influences on Children's Loneliness and Depression". Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology. 32 (4): 546–555. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3204_7. ISSN 1537-4416. PMID 14710463.
  26. ^ Hartup, W. W., & Stevens, N. (1999). Friendships and adaptation across the life span. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 8(3), 76–79. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00018
  27. ^ a b Tang, Alva; McLaughlin, Katie A.; Sheridan, Margaret A.; Nelson, Charles A.; Zeanah, Charles H.; Fox, Nathan A. (2022). "Autonomic reactivity to social rejection, peer difficulties, and the buffering effects of adolescent friendships following early psychosocial deprivation". Emotion. 22 (2): 318–330. doi:10.1037/emo0001016. ISSN 1931-1516. PMC 9661887. PMID 34766790.
  28. ^ Alsarrani, Abdullah; Hunter, Ruth F.; Dunne, Laura; Garcia, Leandro (2022-12-23). "Association between friendship quality and subjective wellbeing among adolescents: a systematic review". BMC Public Health. 22 (1): 2420. doi:10.1186/s12889-022-14776-4. ISSN 1471-2458. PMC 9784006. PMID 36564745.
  29. ^ van Harmelen, A.-L.; Kievit, R. A.; Ioannidis, K.; Neufeld, S.; Jones, P. B.; Bullmore, E.; Dolan, R.; NSPN Consortium; Fonagy, P.; Goodyer, I. (2017). "Adolescent friendships predict later resilient functioning across psychosocial domains in a healthy community cohort". Psychological Medicine. 47 (13): 2312–2322. doi:10.1017/S0033291717000836. ISSN 1469-8978. PMC 5820532. PMID 28397612.
  30. ^ König, Maximilian; Berhe, Oksana; Ioannidis, Konstantinos; Orellana, Sofia; Davidson, Eugenia; Kaser, Muzaffer; RAISE Consortium; Moreno-López, Laura; van Harmelen, Anne-Laura (2023-11-23). "The stress-buffering role of friendships in young people with childhood threat experiences: a preliminary report". European Journal of Psychotraumatology. 14 (2). doi:10.1080/20008066.2023.2281971. ISSN 2000-8066. PMC 10990450. PMID 38154076.
  31. ^ Pierce, Gregory R.; Sarason, Irwin G.; Sarason, Barbara R.; Solky-Butzel, Jessica A.; Nagle, Lauren C. (1997). "Assessing the Quality of Personal Relationships". Journal of Social and Personal Relationships. 14 (3): 339–356. doi:10.1177/0265407597143004. ISSN 0265-4075.
  32. ^ Mendelson, M. J., & Aboud, F. E. (1999). Measuring friendship quality in late adolescents and young adults: McGill Friendship Questionnaires. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, 31(2), 130–132. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0087080
  33. ^ Demir, M., & Weitekamp, L. A. (2007). "I am so happy cause today I found my friend: Friendship and personality as predictors of happiness": Erratum. Journal of Happiness Studies: An Interdisciplinary Forum on Subjective Well-Being, 8(2), 213. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-006-9034-1
  34. ^ Demir, Melikşah; Orthel-Clark, Haley; Özdemir, Metin; Bayram Özdemir, Sevgi (2015), Demir, Melikşah (ed.), "Friendship and Happiness Among Young Adults", Friendship and Happiness: Across the Life-Span and Cultures, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 117–135, doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9603-3_7, ISBN 978-94-017-9603-3, retrieved 2024-11-22
  35. ^ Bagwell, Catherine L.; Bender, Sarah E.; Andreassi, Cristina L.; Kinoshita, Tracy L.; Montarello, Staci A.; Muller, Jason G. (2005). "Friendship quality and perceived relationship changes predict psychosocial adjustment in early adulthood". Journal of Social and Personal Relationships. 22 (2): 235–254. doi:10.1177/0265407505050945. ISSN 0265-4075.
  36. ^ Craig, L., & Kuykendall, L. (2019). Examining the role of friendship for employee well-being. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 115, Article 103313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2019.06.001
  37. ^ Secor, Scott P.; Limke-McLean, Alicia; Wright, Ronald W. (2017). "Whose Support Matters? Support of Friends (but Not Family) May Predict Affect and Wellbeing of Adults Faced With Negative Life Events". Journal of Relationships Research. 8: e10. doi:10.1017/jrr.2017.10. ISSN 1838-0956.
  38. ^ Pezirkianidis, Christos; Galanaki, Evangelia; Raftopoulou, Georgia; Moraitou, Despina; Stalikas, Anastassios (2023). "Adult friendship and wellbeing: A systematic review with practical implications". Frontiers in Psychology. 14. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1059057. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 9902704. PMID 36760434.
  39. ^ Buote, Vanessa M.; Pancer, S. Mark; Pratt, Michael W.; Adams, Gerald; Birnie-Lefcovitch, Shelly; Polivy, Janet; Wintre, Maxine Gallander (2007). "The Importance of Friends: Friendship and Adjustment Among 1st-Year University Students". Journal of Adolescent Research. 22 (6): 665–689. doi:10.1177/0743558407306344. ISSN 0743-5584.
  40. ^ Langheit, Stéphanie; Poulin, François (2024). "Links Between Best-Friendship Quality and Well-Being From Early Emerging Adulthood to Early Established Adulthood". Emerging Adulthood. 12 (4): 539–552. doi:10.1177/21676968241248877. ISSN 2167-6968. PMC 11196206. PMID 38934010.
  41. ^ Calderon Leon, Maria D.; Guassi Moreira, João F.; Saragosa-Harris, Natalie M.; Waizman, Yael H.; Sedykin, Anna; Peris, Tara S.; Silvers, Jennifer A. (2024). "Parent and Friend Relationship Quality and Links to Trajectories of Loneliness During the First Year of College". Child Psychiatry & Human Development. 55 (3): 680–694. doi:10.1007/s10578-022-01416-6. ISSN 0009-398X. PMC 9510327. PMID 36152130.
  42. ^ Pittman, L. D., & Richmond, A. (2008). University belonging, friendship quality, and psychological adjustment during the transition to college. Journal of Experimental Education, 76(4), 343–361. https://doi.org/10.3200/JEXE.76.4.343-362
  43. ^ Bagwell, Catherine L.; Bender, Sarah E.; Andreassi, Cristina L.; Kinoshita, Tracy L.; Montarello, Staci A.; Muller, Jason G. (2005). "Friendship quality and perceived relationship changes predict psychosocial adjustment in early adulthood". Journal of Social and Personal Relationships. 22 (2): 235–254. doi:10.1177/0265407505050945. ISSN 0265-4075.
  44. ^ Pritchett, R.; Kemp, J.; Wilson, P.; Minnis, H.; Bryce, G.; Gillberg, C. (2011-04-01). "Quick, simple measures of family relationships for use in clinical practice and research. A systematic review". Family Practice. 28 (2): 172–187. doi:10.1093/fampra/cmq080. ISSN 0263-2136. PMID 20978241.
  45. ^ a b Skinner, H. A., Steinhauer, P. D., & Santa-Barbara, J. (1983). The Family Assessment Measure. Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health, 2(2), 91–105. https://doi.org/10.7870/cjcmh-1983-0018
  46. ^ a b c Furman, W., & Giberson, R. S. (1995). Identifying the links between parents and their children's sibling relationships. In S. Shulman (Ed.), Close relationships and socioemotional development (pp. 95–108). Ablex Publishing.
  47. ^ a b Gerard, A. B. (1994). Parent-Child Relationship Inventory (PCRI) manual. Western Psychological Services.
  48. ^ Thomas, Patricia A.; Liu, Hui; Umberson, Debra (2017). "Family Relationships and Well-Being". Innovation in Aging. 1 (3): igx025. doi:10.1093/geroni/igx025. ISSN 2399-5300. PMC 5954612. PMID 29795792.
  49. ^ Grevenstein, Dennis; Bluemke, Matthias; Schweitzer, Jochen; Aguilar-Raab, Corina (2019-06-01). "Better family relationships––higher well-being: The connection between relationship quality and health related resources". Mental Health & Prevention. 14: 200160. doi:10.1016/j.mph.2019.200160. ISSN 2212-6570.
  50. ^ Lange, Alfred; Evers, Anouk; Jansen, Hedi; Dolan, Conor (2002). "PACHIQ-R: The Parent-Child Interaction Questionnaire—Revised". Family Process. 41 (4): 709–722. doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.2002.00709.x. ISSN 0014-7370. PMID 12613126.
  51. ^ Umberson, Debra; Gove, Walter R. (1989). "Parenthood and Psychological Well-Being: Theory, Measurement, and Stage in the Family Life Course". Journal of Family Issues. 10 (4): 440–462. doi:10.1177/019251389010004002. ISSN 0192-513X.
  52. ^ Koropeckyj-Cox, Tanya (2002). "Beyond Parental Status: Psychological Well-Being in Middle and Old Age". Journal of Marriage and Family. 64 (4): 957–971. doi:10.1111/j.1741-3737.2002.00957.x. ISSN 0022-2445.
  53. ^ Milkie, Melissa A.; Bierman, Alex; Schieman, Scott (2008). "How Adult Children Influence Older Parents' Mental Health: Integrating Stress-process and Life-course Perspectives". Social Psychology Quarterly. 71 (1): 86–105. doi:10.1177/019027250807100109. ISSN 0190-2725.
  54. ^ Blewitt, Claire; Bergmeier, Heidi; Macdonald, Jacqui A.; Olsson, Craig A.; Skouteris, Helen (2016). "Associations between parent–child relationship quality and obesogenic risk in adolescence: a systematic review of recent literature". Obesity Reviews. 17 (7): 612–622. doi:10.1111/obr.12413. ISSN 1467-7881. PMID 27125464.
  55. ^ Rodenburg, Roos; Marie Meijer, Anne; Deković, Maja; Aldenkamp, Albert P. (2006). "Family Predictors of Psychopathology in Children with Epilepsy". Epilepsia. 47 (3): 601–614. doi:10.1111/j.1528-1167.2006.00475.x. ISSN 0013-9580. PMID 16529629.
  56. ^ Feldman, Ruth; Gordon, Ilanit; Influs, Moran; Gutbir, Tamar; Ebstein, Richard P (2013). "Parental Oxytocin and Early Caregiving Jointly Shape Children's Oxytocin Response and Social Reciprocity". Neuropsychopharmacology. 38 (7): 1154–1162. doi:10.1038/npp.2013.22. ISSN 0893-133X. PMC 3656367. PMID 23325323.
  57. ^ Gunnar, Megan R. (1998). "Quality of Early Care and Buffering of Neuroendocrine Stress Reactions: Potential Effects on the Developing Human Brain". Preventive Medicine. 27 (2): 208–211. doi:10.1006/pmed.1998.0276. PMID 9578997.
  58. ^ Carlson, Elizabeth A. (1998). "A Prospective Longitudinal Study of Attachment Disorganization/Disorientation". Child Development. 69 (4): 1107–1128. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1998.tb06163.x. ISSN 0009-3920. PMID 9768489.
  59. ^ Dozier, M., Stovall-McClough, K. C., & Albus, K. E. (2008). Attachment and psychopathology in adulthood. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (2nd ed., pp. 718–744). The Guilford Press.
  60. ^ Winsper, C.; Zanarini, M.; Wolke, D. (2012). "Prospective study of family adversity and maladaptive parenting in childhood and borderline personality disorder symptoms in a non-clinical population at 11 years". Psychological Medicine. 42 (11): 2405–2420. doi:10.1017/S0033291712000542. ISSN 0033-2917. PMID 22475090.
  61. ^ Roisman, G. I., Madsen, S. D., Hennighausen, K. H., Sroufe, L. A., & Collins, W. A. (2001). The coherence of dyadic behavior across parent–child and romantic relationships as mediated by the internalized representation of experience. Attachment & Human Development, 3(2), 156–172. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616730110056946
  62. ^ Simpson, Jeffry A.; Collins, W. Andrew; Tran, SiSi; Haydon, Katherine C. (2007). "Attachment and the experience and expression of emotions in romantic relationships: A developmental perspective". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 92 (2): 355–367. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.2.355. ISSN 1939-1315. PMID 17279854.
  63. ^ River, Laura M.; O’Reilly Treter, Maggie; Rhoades, Galena K.; Narayan, Angela J. (2022). "Parent–Child Relationship Quality in the Family of Origin and Later Romantic Relationship Functioning: A Systematic Review". Family Process. 61 (1): 259–277. doi:10.1111/famp.12650. ISSN 0014-7370. PMID 33904162.
  64. ^ Holt, Laura J.; Mattanah, Jonathan F.; Long, Michelle W. (2018). "Change in parental and peer relationship quality during emerging adulthood: Implications for academic, social, and emotional functioning". Journal of Social and Personal Relationships. 35 (5): 743–769. doi:10.1177/0265407517697856. ISSN 0265-4075.
  65. ^ J. Caspi (Ed.), Sibling development: Implications for mental health practitioners, Springer Publishing, New York (2011), pp. 377-390
  66. ^ Buhrmester, Duane; Furman, Wyndol (1990). "Perceptions of Sibling Relationships during Middle Childhood and Adolescence". Child Development. 61 (5): 1387–1398. doi:10.2307/1130750. ISSN 0009-3920. JSTOR 1130750.
  67. ^ Sanders, Robert (2008). Campling, Jo (ed.). Sibling Relationships. doi:10.1007/978-0-230-20306-8. ISBN 978-0-333-96411-8.
  68. ^ a b Buist, Kirsten L.; Deković, Maja; Prinzie, Peter (2013). "Sibling relationship quality and psychopathology of children and adolescents: A meta-analysis". Clinical Psychology Review. 33 (1): 97–106. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2012.10.007. PMID 23159327.
  69. ^ Furman, Wyndol; Buhrmester, Duane (1985). "Children's Perceptions of the Qualities of Sibling Relationships". Child Development. 56 (2): 448–461. doi:10.2307/1129733. ISSN 0009-3920. JSTOR 1129733. PMID 3987418.
  70. ^ Stocker, Clare M.; McHale, Susan M. (1992). "The Nature and Family Correlates of Preadolescents' Perceptions of their Sibling Relationships". Journal of Social and Personal Relationships. 9 (2): 179–195. doi:10.1177/0265407592092002. ISSN 0265-4075.
  71. ^ Waldinger, Robert J.; Vaillant, George E.; Orav, E. John (2007). "Childhood Sibling Relationships as a Predictor of Major Depression in Adulthood: A 30-Year Prospective Study". American Journal of Psychiatry. 164 (6): 949–954. doi:10.1176/ajp.2007.164.6.949. ISSN 0002-953X. PMID 17541056.
  72. ^ Jensen, Alexander C.; Whiteman, Shawn D.; Fingerman, Karen L.; Birditt, Kira S. (2013). ""Life Still Isn't Fair": Parental Differential Treatment of Young Adult Siblings". Journal of Marriage and Family. 75 (2): 438–452. doi:10.1111/jomf.12002. ISSN 0022-2445. PMC 4018724. PMID 24833808.
  73. ^ a b Bedford, V. H., & Avioli, P. S. (2012). Sibling relationships from midlife to old age. In R. Blieszner & V. H. Bedford (Eds.), Handbook of families and aging (2nd ed., pp. 125–151). Praeger/ABC-CLIO.
  74. ^ Kim, Ji-Yeon; McHale, Susan M.; Crouter, Ann C.; Osgood, D. Wayne (2007). "Longitudinal linkages between sibling relationships and adjustment from middle childhood through adolescence". Developmental Psychology. 43 (4): 960–973. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.4.960. ISSN 1939-0599.
  75. ^ Gass, Krista; Jenkins, Jennifer; Dunn, Judy (2007). "Are sibling relationships protective? A longitudinal study". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 48 (2): 167–175. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01699.x. ISSN 0021-9630. PMID 17300555.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Relationship_quality&oldid=1259575536"