Jump to content

Prevention of migraine attacks

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Migraine

Preventive (also called prophylactic) treatment of migraine can be an important component of migraine management. The goals of preventive therapy are to reduce the frequency, painfulness, and/or duration of migraine attacks, and to increase the effectiveness of abortive therapy.[1][2] Another reason to pursue prevention is to avoid medication overuse headache (MOH), otherwise known as rebound headache, which can arise from overuse of pain medications, and can result in chronic daily headache.[3][4][5] Preventive treatments of migraine include medications, nutritional supplements, lifestyle alterations, and surgery. Prevention is recommended in those who have headaches more than two days a week, cannot tolerate the medications used to treat acute attacks, or those with severe attacks that are not easily controlled.[6]

Behavioral interventions

[edit]

Exercise for 15–20 minutes per day may be helpful for reducing the frequency of migraine attacks.[7] Recommended lifestyle changes include stopping tobacco use and reducing behaviors that interfere with sleep.[8] Diet, visualization, and self-hypnosis are also alternative treatments and prevention approaches. General dietary restriction has not been demonstrated to be an effective approach to treating migraine.[9] Sexual activity has been reported by a proportion of males and females with migraine to relieve migraine pain significantly in some cases.[10]

Medications

[edit]

Preventive drugs are used to reduce the frequency, duration, and severity of migraine attacks. Because of frequent unpleasant and sometimes debilitating side effects, preventive drugs are only prescribed for those migraineurs whose quality of life is significantly adversely affected. The most commonly prescribed drugs for migraine prevention are beta-blockers, antidepressants, and anticonvulsants. The drugs are started at a low dose, which is gradually increased until therapeutic effects develop, the ceiling dose for the chosen drug is reached, or side effects become intolerable.

Preventive migraine medications are considered effective if they reduce the frequency or severity of the migraine attacks by at least 50%.[11] Due to few medications being approved specifically for the preventative treatment of migraine headaches, many medications such as beta-blockers, anticonvulsive agents such as topiramate or sodium valproate, antidepressants such as amitriptyline and calcium channel blockers such as flunarizine are used off label for the preventative treatment of migraine headaches.[12] Guidelines are fairly consistent in rating the anticonvulsants topiramate and divalproex/sodium valproate, and the beta blockers propranolol and metoprolol as having the highest level of evidence for first-line use for migraine prophylaxis in adults.[13][14] Propranolol and topiramate have the best evidence in children; however, evidence only supports short-term benefit as of 2020.[8][15]

The beta blocker timolol is also effective for migraine prevention and in reducing migraine attack frequency and severity.[13] While beta blockers are often used for first-line treatment, other antihypertensives also have a proven efficiency in migraine prevention, namely the calcium channel blocker verapamil[16] and the angiotensin receptor blocker candesartan.[17][18]

Tentative evidence also supports the use of magnesium supplementation.[19] Increasing dietary intake may be better.[20] Recommendations regarding effectiveness varied for the anticonvulsants gabapentin and pregabalin. Frovatriptan is effective for prevention of menstrual migraine.[13]

The antidepressants amitriptyline and venlafaxine are probably also effective.[21] Angiotensin inhibition by either an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or angiotensin II receptor antagonist may reduce attacks.[22]

Medications in the anti-calcitonin gene-related peptide, including eptinezumab, erenumab, fremanezumab, and galcanezumab, appear to decrease the frequency of migraines by one to two per month.[23]

A 2006 review article by S. Modi and D. Lowder offers some general guidelines on when a physician should consider prescribing drugs for migraine prevention:

Following appropriate management of acute migraine, patients should be evaluated for initiation of preventive therapy. Factors that should prompt consideration of preventive therapy include the occurrence of two or more migraines per month with disability lasting three or more days per month; failure of, contraindication for, or adverse events from acute treatments; use of abortive medication more than twice per week; and uncommon migraine conditions (e.g., hemiplegic migraine, migraine with prolonged aura, migrainous infarction). Patient preference and cost also should be considered. ...Therapy should be initiated with medications that have the highest levels of effectiveness and the lowest potential for adverse reactions; these should be started at low dosages and titrated slowly. A full therapeutic trial may take two to six months. After successful therapy (e.g., reduction of migraine frequency by approximately 50 percent or more) has been maintained for six to 12 months, discontinuation of preventive therapy can be considered.[24]

Preventive medication has to be taken on a daily basis, usually for a few weeks, before the effectiveness can be determined. Supervision by a neurologist is advisable. A large number of medications with varying modes of action can be used. Selection of a suitable medication for any particular patient is a matter of trial and error, since the effectiveness of individual medications varies widely from one patient to the next. Often preventive medications do not have to be taken indefinitely. Sometimes as little as six months of preventive therapy is enough to "break the headache cycle" and then they can be discontinued.

Drugs used to prevent migraine in the UK include: fremanezumab, eptinezumab, erenumab, galcanezumab, botulinium toxin A, topiramate. A meta-analysis suggested that all these drugs reduced the number of days people spent with migraine and that differences in effectiveness between these drugs were modest.[25][26]

The most effective prescription medications include several drug classes.

Beta blockers

[edit]

The beta-blocker propranalol's effectiveness in headache treatment was a chance finding in patients receiving the drug for angina (chest pain due to a lack of blood to the heart muscle). The beta-blockers that are used in migraine treatment are propranolol, nadolol, timolol, metoprolol, and atenolol.

A meta-analysis found that propranolol had an "overall relative risk of response to treatment (here called the 'responder ratio')" was 1.94.[27][needs update]

Adverse drug reactions (ADRs) associated with the use of beta blockers include: nausea, diarrhea, bronchospasm, dyspnea, cold extremities, exacerbation of Raynaud's syndrome, bradycardia, hypotension, heart failure, heart block, fatigue, dizziness, alopecia (hair loss), abnormal vision, hallucinations, insomnia, nightmares, sexual dysfunction, erectile dysfunction and/or alteration of glucose and lipid metabolism. Due to the high penetration across the blood–brain barrier, lipophilic beta blockers, such as propranolol and metoprolol, are more likely than other, less lipophilic, beta blockers to cause sleep disturbances, such as insomnia and vivid dreams and nightmares.

Anticonvulsants

[edit]

Anticonvulsants such as valproic acid and topiramate. A meta-analysis by the Cochrane Collaboration of ten randomized controlled trials or crossover studies, which together included 1341 patients, found anticonvulsants had an "2.4 times more likely to experience a 50% or greater reduction in frequency with anticonvulsants than with placebo" and a number needed to treat of 3.8.[28] However, concerns have been raised about the marketing of gabapentin.[29]

Neuromodulators

[edit]

Neuromodulators are also referred to as antidepressants when used to treat depression. Amitriptyline has been more frequently studied of the antidepressants and is the only antidepressant with fairly consistent support for efficacy in migraine prevention [citation needed]. The method of headache prevention with antidepressants is uncertain, but does not result from treating masked depression.

Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) such as amitriptyline and the newer selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) such as fluoxetine are sometimes prescribed.[30] TCAs have been found to be more effective than SSRIs.[31] SSRIs are no more effective than placebo.[32] Another meta-analysis found benefit from SSRIs among patients with migraine or tension headache; however, the effect of SSRIs on only migraines was not separately reported.[33]

The main two side effects that occur from taking amitriptyline are drowsiness and a dry mouth. Other common side effects of using amitriptyline are mostly due to its anticholinergic activity, including: weight gain, changes in appetite, muscle stiffness, nausea, constipation, nervousness, dizziness, blurred vision, urinary retention, and changes in sexual function.

Anticonvulsants

[edit]

Anticonvulsant medication is commonly prescribed for migraine prevention, because they have been shown in placebo-controlled double-blind trials to be effective in some migraine sufferers.

Valproate acid

[edit]

Placebo controlled trials of both divalproex sodium and sodium valproate have shown them to be significantly better than placebo at reducing headache frequency.[34][35][36][37] Nausea, vomiting, and gastrointestinal disturbances are the most common side-effects of valproate therapy, and are slightly less common with divalproex sodium than with sodium valproate.[38] The results of a study on the long-term safety of divalproex sodium showed premature discontinuation of the drug in 36% of patients because of either drug intolerance or ineffectivity of the drug.[39]

Topiramate

[edit]

Topiramate has been approved by the FDA for prevention of migraine. Studies have shown that it provides significant reductions in the frequency of migraine episodes in patients with 3-12 headaches a month.[40] Adverse reactions related to topiramate treatment occurred in 82.5% of 328 subjects who took part in an extensive trial covering 46 different centres. Most commonly reported were paresthesia (28.8%), upper respiratory tract infection (13.8%, and fatigue (11.9%)[41]

Topiramate has evidence in preventive treatment of chronic migraine.[42]

Botulinum toxin

[edit]

Botulinum neurotoxin (Botox) injections have been approved in the US and UK for prevention of chronic migraine,[43] but do not appear to work for episodic migraine.[44] Several invasive surgical procedures are currently under investigation. One involves the surgical removal of specific muscles or the transection of specific cranial nerve branches in the area of one or more of four identified trigger points.[45]

Botulinum toxin (Botox) has evidence in preventive treatment of chronic migraine.[42][46] Botulinum toxin has been found to be useful in those with chronic migraine but not those with episodic ones.[47][48]

[edit]

The main types of CGRP antagonists used in the prevention of migraines are CGRP monoclonal antibodies and CGRP receptor antagonists (gepants). Zavegepant was approved for medical use in the United States in March 2023.[49][50]

Calcitonin gene-related peptide receptor antagonists (CGRP) target calcitonin gene-related peptide or its receptor to prevent migraine headaches or reduce their severity.[51] CGRP is a signaling molecule as well as a potent vasodilator that is involved in the development of a migraine headache.[51] There are four injectable monoclonal antibodies that target CGRP or its receptor (eptinezumab, erenumab, fremanezumab, and galcanezumab) and the medications have demonstrated efficacy in the preventative treatment of episodic and chronic migraine headaches in phase III randomized clinical trials.[51]

The anti-CGRP monoclonal antibody erenumab was found in one study to decrease chronic migraines by 2.4 days more than placebo.[52]

Various herbal drugs

[edit]

Butterbur

[edit]

Native butterbur contains some carcinogenic compounds, but a purified version, Petadolex, does not.[53] A systematic review of two trials totalling 293 patients (60 and 233 patients) showed "moderate evidence of effectiveness ... for a higher than the recommended dose of the proprietary Petasites root extract Petadolex in the prophylaxis of migraine."[54]

Among several medicines studied in one analysis, butterbur had the best evidence (as assessed between 1999 and 2009) for its use.[55][56] Unprocessed butterbur contains chemicals called pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) which can cause liver damage, however there are versions that are PA free.[57] In addition, butterbur may cause allergic reactions in people who are sensitive to plants such as ragweed.[58]

Cannabis

[edit]

Cannabis was a standard treatment for migraine from 1874 to 1942.[59] It has been reported to help people through an attack by relieving the nausea and dulling the head pain, as well as possibly preventing the headache completely when used as soon as possible after the onset of pre-migraine symptoms, such as aura.[59][60]

Feverfew

The plant feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium) is a traditional herbal remedy believed to reduce the frequency of migraine attacks.[61] A number of clinical trials have been carried out to test this claim, but a 2004 review article concluded that the results have been contradictory and inconclusive.[61]

Feverfew has traditionally been used as a treatment for fever, headache and migraine, women's conditions such as difficulties in labour and regulation of menstruation, relief of stomach ache, toothache and insect bites. During the last decades, it has mainly been used for headache and as a preventive treatment for migraine.[62] The plant parts used for medicinal use are the dried leaves or the dried aerial parts. Several historical data supports feverfew's traditional medicinal uses.[63] In addition, several clinical studies have been performed assessing the efficacy and safety of feverfew monotherapy in the prevention of migraine.[64] The majority of the clinical trials favoured feverfew over placebo. The data also suggest that feverfew is associated with only mild and transient adverse effects. The frequency of migraine was positively affected after treatment with feverfew. Reduction of migraine severity was also reported after intake of feverfew and incidence of nausea and vomiting decreased significantly. No effect of feverfew was reported in one study.[64]

Feverfew is registered as a traditional herbal medicine in the Nordic countries under the brand name Glitinum, only powdered feverfew is approved in the Herbal community monograph issued by European Medicines Agency (EMA).

Other medications

[edit]

A wide range of other pharmacological drugs have been evaluated to determine their efficacy in reducing the frequency or severity of migraine attacks.[30] These drugs include beta-blockers, calcium antagonists, neurostabalizers, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), tricyclic antidepressants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), other antidepressants, and other specialized drug therapies.[30] The US Headache Consortium lists five drugs as having medium to high efficacy: amitriptyline, divalproex, timolol, propranolol and topiramate.[30] Lower efficacy drugs listed include aspirin, atenolol, fenoprofen, flurbiprofen, fluoxetine, gabapentin, ketoprofen, metoprolol, nadolol, naproxen, nimodipine, verapamil and Botulinum A.[30] Additionally, most antidepressants (tricyclic, SSRIs and others such as Bupropion) are listed as "clinically efficacious based on consensus of experience" without scientific support.[30] Many of these drugs may give rise to undesirable side-effects, or may be efficacious in treating comorbid conditions, such as depression.

  • Methysergide was withdrawn from the US market by Novartis, but is available in Canadian pharmacies. Although highly effective, it has rare but serious side effects, including retroperitoneal fibrosis.[65]
  • Methylergometrine remains available in the US and is an active metabolite of methysergide. It is thought to carry the same risks and benefits as methysergide but has not been widely studied in migraine.
  • Memantine, which is used in the treatment of Alzheimer's Disease, is beginning to be used off label for the treatment of migraine. It has not yet been approved by the FDA for the treatment of migraine.
  • Aspirin can be taken daily in low doses such as 80 mg. The blood thinners in ASA have been shown to help some migraineurs, especially those who have an aura.
  • Placebo is as effective as adding propranolol to patients not adequately controlled on topiramate. In a randomized controlled trial, both groups reduced their days with migraine by half.[66]
  • L-cysteine as a slow release formulation is being studied for migraine prevention.[67]
  • Coenzyme Q10: there is tentative evidence that coenzyme Q10 reduces migraine frequency.[68]
  • Melatonin: there is tentative evidence for melatonin as an add-on therapy for prevention and treatment of migraine.[69][70] The data on melatonin are mixed and certain studies have had negative results.[69] The reasons for the mixed findings are unclear but may stem from differences in study design and dosage.[69] Melatonin's possible mechanisms of action in migraine are not completely clear, but may include improved sleep, direct action on melatonin receptors in the brain, and anti-inflammatory properties.[69][71]

Medical devices

[edit]

Medical devices, such as biofeedback and neurostimulators, have some advantages in migraine prevention, mainly when common anti-migraine medications are contraindicated or in case of medication overuse. Biofeedback helps people be conscious of some physiological parameters so as to control them and try to relax and may be efficient for migraine treatment.[72][73] Neurostimulation uses noninvasive or implantable neurostimulators similar to pacemakers for the treatment of intractable chronic migraine with encouraging results for severe cases.[74][75] A transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulator and a transcranial magnetic stimulator are approved in the United States for the prevention of migraines.[76][77] There is also tentative evidence for transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation decreases the frequency of migraines.[78]

Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation

[edit]

A transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation device called Cefaly was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in the United States on March 11, 2014, for the prevention of migraine; this was the first medical device to get FDA approval for this purpose.[79]

Neurostimulation

[edit]

Neurostimulation initially used implantable neurostimulators similar to pacemakers for the treatment of intractable chronic migraine[80][81] with encouraging good results. But the needed surgery with implantable neurostimulators is limiting the indication to severe cases.[82]

Transcranial magnetic stimulation

[edit]

At the 49th Annual meeting of the American Headache Society in June 2006, scientists from Ohio State University Medical Center [83] presented medical research on 47 candidates that demonstrated that TMS — a medically non-invasive technology for treating depression, obsessive compulsive disorder and tinnitus, among other ailments — helped to prevent and even reduce the severity of migraine among its patients. This treatment essentially disrupts the aura phase of migraine before patients develop full-blown migraine attack.[84]

In about 74% of the migraine headaches, TMS was found to eliminate or reduce nausea and sensitivity to noise and light.[85] Their research suggests that there is a strong neurological component to migraine. A larger study will be conducted soon to better assess TMS's complete effectiveness.[86]

Alternative therapies

[edit]

Acupuncture has a small effect in reducing migraine frequency, compared to sham acupuncture, a practice where needles are placed randomly or do not penetrate the skin.[87] Physiotherapy, massage and relaxation, and chiropractic manipulation might be as effective as propranolol or topiramate in the prevention of migraine headaches; however, the research had some problems with methodology.[88][89] Another review, however, found evidence to support spinal manipulation to be poor and insufficient to support its use.[90]

Tentative evidence supports the use of stress reduction techniques such as cognitive behavioral therapy, biofeedback, and relaxation techniques.[91] Regular physical exercise may decrease the frequency.[92] Numerous psychological approaches have been developed that are aimed at preventing or reducing the frequency of migraine in adults including educational approaches, relaxation techniques, assistance in developing coping strategies, strategies to change the way one thinks of a migraine attack, and strategies to reduce symptoms.[93] Other strategies include: progressive muscle relaxation, biofeedback, behavioral training, acceptance and commitment therapy, and mindfulness-based interventions.[94] The medical evidence supporting the effectiveness of these types of psychological approaches is very limited.[93]

Biofeedback

[edit]

Biofeedback has been used successfully by some to control migraine symptoms through training and practice.[95] Biofeedback helps patient to be conscious of some physiologic parameters to control them and try to relax. This method is considered to be efficient for migraine prevention.[96][97]

Acupuncture

[edit]

Cochrane reviews have found that acupuncture is effective in the treatment of migraine.[98] The use of "true" acupuncture seems to be slightly more effective than sham acupuncture, however, both "true" and sham acupuncture appear to be at least similarly effective as treatment with preventative medications, with fewer adverse effects.[99]

Manual therapy

[edit]

A systematic review stated that chiropractic manipulation, physiotherapy, massage and relaxation might be as effective as propranolol or topiramate in the prevention of migraine headaches; however, the research had some problems with methodology.[100]

Surgery

[edit]
Main article: Migraine surgery

Some surgical options exist for prevention of migraines, but these are rarely used, or are only used in particular circumstances, such as to close a patent foramen ovale. Migraine surgery, which involves decompression of certain nerves around the head and neck, may be an option in certain people who do not improve with medications.[101] There have been major pharmacological advances for the treatment of migraine headaches, yet patients must still endure symptoms until the medications take effect. Furthermore, often they still experience a poor quality of life despite an aggressive regimen of pharmacotherapy.[102] Migraine surgery techniques have proven most effective in selected patients, often resulting in permanent migraine prevention. The most effective appear to be those involving the surgical cauterization of the superficial blood vessels of the scalp (the terminal branches of the external carotid artery),[103] and the removal of muscles in areas known as "trigger sites".[104][45][105]

Research

[edit]

There is ongoing research in migraine prevention. Standards for the conducts of trials of preventive medications have been proposed by the Task Force of the International Headache Society Clinical Trials Subcommittee.[106]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Modi S, Lowder DM (January 2006). "Medications for migraine prophylaxis". American Family Physician. 73 (1): 72–78. PMID 16417067. Archived from the original on 2 March 2020. Retrieved 19 February 2010.
  2. ^ Ha H, Gonzalez A (January 2019). "Migraine Headache Prophylaxis". American Family Physician. 99 (1): 17–24. PMID 30600979. Archived from the original on 5 April 2023. Retrieved 25 August 2023.
  3. ^ Diener H, Limmroth V; Limmroth (2004). "Medication-overuse headache: a worldwide problem". The Lancet Neurology. 3 (8): 475–83. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(04)00824-5. PMID 15261608. S2CID 43840120.
  4. ^ Diener HC, Limmroth V (August 2004). "Medication-overuse headache: a worldwide problem". The Lancet. Neurology. 3 (8): 475–483. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(04)00824-5. PMID 15261608. S2CID 43840120.
  5. ^ Fritsche G, Diener HC (November 2002). "Medication overuse headaches -- what is new?". Expert Opinion on Drug Safety. 1 (4): 331–338. doi:10.1517/14740338.1.4.331. PMID 12904133. S2CID 23422679.
  6. ^ Gilmore B, Michael M (February 2011). "Treatment of acute migraine headache". American Family Physician. 83 (3): 271–280. PMID 21302868.
  7. ^ http://www.headachedrugs.com/
  8. ^ a b Oskoui M, Pringsheim T, Billinghurst L, Potrebic S, Gersz EM, Gloss D, Holler-Managan Y, Leininger E, Licking N, Mack K, Powers SW, Sowell M, Victorio MC, Yonker M, Zanitsch H, Hershey AD (September 2019). "Practice guideline update summary: Pharmacologic treatment for pediatric migraine prevention: Report of the Guideline Development, Dissemination, and Implementation Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Headache Society". Neurology. 93 (11): 500–509. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000008105. PMC 6746206. PMID 31413170.
  9. ^ Holzhammer J, Wöber C; Wöber (2006). "Alimentary trigger factors that provoke migraine and tension-type headache". Schmerz (in German). 20 (2): 151–9. doi:10.1007/s00482-005-0390-2. PMID 15806385. S2CID 44546038.
  10. ^ Houle TT, Dhingra LK, Remble TA, Rokicki LA, Penzien DB; Dhingra; Remble; Rokicki; Penzien (June 2006). "Not tonight, I have a headache?". Headache. 46 (6): 983–90. doi:10.1111/j.1526-4610.2006.00470.x. PMID 16732844. S2CID 21894032.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ^ Kaniecki R, Lucas S (2004). "Treatment of primary headache: preventive treatment of migraine". Standards of care for headache diagnosis and treatment. Chicago: National Headache Foundation. pp. 40–52.
  12. ^ Ashina M (November 2020). "Migraine". The New England Journal of Medicine. 383 (19): 1866–1876. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1915327. PMID 33211930. S2CID 227078662.
  13. ^ a b c Loder E, Burch R, Rizzoli P (June 2012). "The 2012 AHS/AAN guidelines for prevention of episodic migraine: a summary and comparison with other recent clinical practice guidelines". Headache. 52 (6): 930–45. doi:10.1111/j.1526-4610.2012.02185.x. PMID 22671714. S2CID 540800.
  14. ^ Linde M, Mulleners WM, Chronicle EP, McCrory DC (June 2013). "Antiepileptics other than gabapentin, pregabalin, topiramate, and valproate for the prophylaxis of episodic migraine in adults". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2021 (6): CD010608. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD010608. PMC 8221229. PMID 23797674.
  15. ^ Locher C, Kossowsky J, Koechlin H, Lam TL, Barthel J, Berde CB, Gaab J, Schwarzer G, Linde K, Meissner K (April 2020). "Efficacy, Safety, and Acceptability of Pharmacologic Treatments for Pediatric Migraine Prophylaxis: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-analysis". JAMA Pediatrics. 174 (4): 341–349. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2019.5856. PMC 7042942. PMID 32040139.
  16. ^ Merison K, Jacobs H (November 2016). "Diagnosis and Treatment of Childhood Migraine". Current Treatment Options in Neurology. 18 (11): 48. doi:10.1007/s11940-016-0431-4. PMID 27704257. S2CID 28302667.
  17. ^ Dorosch T, Ganzer CA, Lin M, Seifan A (September 2019). "Efficacy of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors and Angiotensin Receptor Blockers in the Preventative Treatment of Episodic Migraine in Adults". Current Pain and Headache Reports. 23 (11): 85. doi:10.1007/s11916-019-0823-8. PMID 31515634. S2CID 202557362.
  18. ^ Cernes R, Mashavi M, Zimlichman R (2011). "Differential clinical profile of candesartan compared to other angiotensin receptor blockers". Vascular Health and Risk Management. 7: 749–59. doi:10.2147/VHRM.S22591. PMC 3253768. PMID 22241949.
  19. ^ Rajapakse T, Pringsheim T (April 2016). "Nutraceuticals in Migraine: A Summary of Existing Guidelines for Use". Headache. 56 (4): 808–16. doi:10.1111/head.12789. PMID 26954394. S2CID 31097792.
  20. ^ Teigen L, Boes CJ (September 2015). "An evidence-based review of oral magnesium supplementation in the preventive treatment of migraine". Cephalalgia. 35 (10): 912–22. doi:10.1177/0333102414564891. PMID 25533715. S2CID 25398410.
  21. ^ Silberstein SD, Holland S, Freitag F, Dodick DW, Argoff C, Ashman E (April 2012). "Evidence-based guideline update: pharmacologic treatment for episodic migraine prevention in adults: report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Headache Society". Neurology. 78 (17): 1337–45. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182535d20. PMC 3335452. PMID 22529202.
  22. ^ Shamliyan TA, Choi JY, Ramakrishnan R, Miller JB, Wang SY, Taylor FR, Kane RL (September 2013). "Preventive pharmacologic treatments for episodic migraine in adults". Journal of General Internal Medicine. 28 (9): 1225–37. doi:10.1007/s11606-013-2433-1. PMC 3744311. PMID 23592242.
  23. ^ Ibekwe A, Perras C, Mierzwinski-Urban M (February 2018). "Monoclonal Antibodies to Prevent Migraine Headaches". CADTH Issues in Emerging Health Technologies. Ottawa (ON): Canadian Agency for Drugs and Technologies in Health. PMID 30855775. Bookshelf ID: NBK538376. Archived from the original on 23 August 2023. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
  24. ^ Modi S, Lowder D; Lowder (2006). "Medications for migraine prophylaxis". American Family Physician. 73 (1): 72–8. PMID 16417067.
  25. ^ Naghdi, Seyran; Underwood, Martin; Madan, Jason; Brown, Anna; Duncan, Callum; Matharu, Manjit; Aksentyte, Aiva; Davies, Natasha; Rees, Sophie; Cooklin, Andrew; Grove, Amy; Mistry, Hema (2023-12-06). "Clinical effectiveness of pharmacological interventions for managing chronic migraine in adults: a systematic review and network meta-analysis". The Journal of Headache and Pain. 24 (1): 164. doi:10.1186/s10194-023-01696-w. ISSN 1129-2377. PMC 10702068. PMID 38057728.
  26. ^ "Chronic migraine: which drugs are best?". NIHR Evidence. 17 September 2024.
  27. ^ Linde K, Rossnagel K; Rossnagel (2004). Linde, Klaus (ed.). "Propranolol for migraine prophylaxis". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2): CD003225. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003225.pub2. PMID 15106196. (Retracted, see doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003225.pub3, PMID 28212466,  Retraction Watch. If this is an intentional citation to a retracted paper, please replace {{retracted|...}} with {{retracted|...|intentional=yes}}.)
  28. ^ Chronicle E, Mulleners W; Mulleners (2004). Mulleners, Wim M (ed.). "Anticonvulsant drugs for migraine prophylaxis". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3): CD003226. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003226.pub2. PMID 15266476. (Retracted, see doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003226.pub3, PMID 27233055)
  29. ^ Steinman M, Bero L, Chren M, Landefeld C; Bero; Chren; Landefeld (2006). "Narrative review: the promotion of gabapentin: an analysis of internal industry documents". Ann Intern Med. 145 (4): 284–93. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-145-4-200608150-00008. PMID 16908919. S2CID 20779923.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  30. ^ a b c d e f Kaniecki R, Lucas S (2004). "Treatment of primary headache: preventive treatment of migraine". Standards of care for headache diagnosis and treatment. Chicago: National Headache Foundation. pp. 40–52.
  31. ^ Jackson JL, Shimeall W, Sessums L, et al. (2010). "Tricyclic antidepressants and headaches: systematic review and meta-analysis". BMJ. 341 (oct20 1): c5222. doi:10.1136/bmj.c5222. PMC 2958257. PMID 20961988.
  32. ^ Banzi, Rita; Cusi, Cristina; Randazzo, Concetta; Sterzi, Roberto; Tedesco, Dario; Moja, Lorenzo (1 April 2015). "Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) for the prevention of migraine in adults". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 4 (11): CD002919. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002919.pub3. hdl:2434/273130. ISSN 1469-493X. PMC 6513227. PMID 25829028.
  33. ^ Tomkins G, Jackson J, O'Malley P, Balden E, Santoro J; Jackson; O'Malley; Balden; Santoro (2001). "Treatment of chronic headache with antidepressants: a meta-analysis". Am J Med. 111 (1): 54–63. doi:10.1016/S0002-9343(01)00762-8. PMID 11448661.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  34. ^ Klapper J (1997). "Divalproex sodium in migraine prophylaxis: a dose-controlled study". Cephalalgia. 17 (2): 103–8. doi:10.1046/j.1468-2982.1997.1702103.x. PMID 9137847. S2CID 33731867.
  35. ^ Mathew NT, Saper JR, Silberstein SD, Rankin L, Markley HG, Solomon S, Rapoport AM, Silber CJ, Deaton RL (1995). "Migraine prophylaxis with divalproex". Arch Neurol. 52 (3): 281–6. doi:10.1001/archneur.1995.00540270077022. PMID 7872882.
  36. ^ Hering R, Kuritzky A (1992). "Sodium valproate in the prophylactic treatment of migraine: a double-blind study versus placebo". Cephalalgia. 12 (2): 81–4. doi:10.1046/j.1468-2982.1992.1202081.x. PMID 1576648. S2CID 27087845.
  37. ^ Jensen R; Brinck T; Olesen J. (1994). "Sodium valproate has a prophylactic effect in migraine without aura: a triple-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study". Neurology. 44 (4): 647–51. doi:10.1212/wnl.44.4.647. PMID 8164818. S2CID 7265890.
  38. ^ Silberstein SD, Saper JR, Freitag FG (2001). "Migraine: Diagnosis and Treatment". Wolff's Headache and other head pain. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 176–198.
  39. ^ Silberstein SD, Collins SD (1999). "Safety of divalproex sodium in migraine prophylaxis: an open-label, long-term study. Long-term Safety of Depakote in Headache Prophylaxis Study Group". Headache. 39 (9): 633–43. doi:10.1046/j.1526-4610.1999.3909633.x. PMID 11284461. S2CID 35482272.
  40. ^ Mathew NT (2006). "The prophylactic treatment of chronic daily headache". Headache. 46 (10): 1552–64. doi:10.1111/j.1526-4610.2006.00621.x. PMID 17115988. S2CID 24595027.
  41. ^ Silberstein SD, Lipton RB, Dodick DW, Freitag FG, Ramadan N, Mathew N, Brandes JL, Bigal M, Saper J, Ascher S, Jordan DM, Greenberg SJ, Hulihan J (2007). "Efficacy and safety of topiramate for the treatment of chronic migraine: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial". Headache. 47 (2): 170–80. doi:10.1111/j.1526-4610.2006.00684.x. PMID 17300356. S2CID 44691320.
  42. ^ a b Silberstein SD, Holland S, Freitag F, Dodick DW, Argoff C, Ashman E (April 2012). "Evidence-based guideline update: pharmacologic treatment for episodic migraine prevention in adults: report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Headache Society". Neurology. 78 (17): 1337–45. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182535d20. PMC 3335452. PMID 22529202.
  43. ^ BOTOX(R) Receives First Authorisation in UK as Preventative Treatment in Chronic Migraine Archived 2010-07-14 at the Wayback Machine
  44. ^ Naumann, M.; So, Y.; Argoff, E.; Childers, K.; Dykstra, D.; Gronseth, S.; Jabbari, B.; Kaufmann, C.; Schurch, B.; Silberstein, S. D.; Simpson, D. M.; Therapeutics Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology (May 2008). "Assessment: Botulinum neurotoxin in the treatment of autonomic disorders and pain (an evidence-based review): Report of the Therapeutics and Technology Assessment Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology". Neurology. 70 (19): 1707–1714. doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000311390.87642.d8. ISSN 0028-3878. PMID 18458231. S2CID 6368020.
  45. ^ a b Guyuron, B. K.; Kriegler, J. S.; Davis, J.; Amini, S. B. (Jan 2005). "Comprehensive surgical treatment of migraine headaches". Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 115 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1097/01.PRS.0000145631.20901.84. PMID 15622223. S2CID 29812683.
  46. ^ Herd CP, Tomlinson CL, Rick C, Scotton WJ, Edwards J, Ives N, Clarke CE, Sinclair A (June 2018). "Botulinum toxins for the prevention of migraine in adults". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2018 (6): CD011616. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011616.pub2. PMC 6513576. PMID 29939406.
  47. ^ Jackson JL, Kuriyama A, Hayashino Y (April 2012). "Botulinum toxin A for prophylactic treatment of migraine and tension headaches in adults: a meta-analysis". JAMA. 307 (16): 1736–45. doi:10.1001/jama.2012.505. PMID 22535858.
  48. ^ Simpson DM, Hallett M, Ashman EJ, Comella CL, Green MW, Gronseth GS, Armstrong MJ, Gloss D, Potrebic S, Jankovic J, Karp BP, Naumann M, So YT, Yablon SA (May 2016). "Practice guideline update summary: Botulinum neurotoxin for the treatment of blepharospasm, cervical dystonia, adult spasticity, and headache: Report of the Guideline Development Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology". Neurology. 86 (19): 1818–26. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000002560. PMC 4862245. PMID 27164716.
  49. ^ https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2023/216386s000lbl.pdf [bare URL PDF]
  50. ^ https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/appletter/2023/216386Orig1s000ltr.pdf [bare URL PDF]
  51. ^ a b c Ashina M (November 2020). "Migraine". The New England Journal of Medicine. 383 (19): 1866–1876. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1915327. PMID 33211930. S2CID 227078662.
  52. ^ Markham A (July 2018). "Erenumab: First Global Approval". Drugs. 78 (11): 1157–1161. doi:10.1007/s40265-018-0944-0. PMID 29968151. S2CID 49559342.
  53. ^ Butterbur Extract: Topic Overview. WebMD, Last Updated: June 30, 2009
  54. ^ Agosti R, Duke RK, Chrubasik JE, Chrubasik S; Duke; Chrubasik; Chrubasik (Nov 2006). "Effectiveness of Petasites hybridus preparations in the prophylaxis of migraine: a systematic review". Phytomedicine. 13 (9–10): 743–6. doi:10.1016/j.phymed.2006.02.008. PMID 16987643.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  55. ^ Holland S, Silberstein SD, Freitag F, Dodick DW, Argoff C, Ashman E (April 2012). "Evidence-based guideline update: NSAIDs and other complementary treatments for episodic migraine prevention in adults: report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the American Headache Society". Neurology. 78 (17): 1346–53. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182535d0c. PMC 3335449. PMID 22529203.
  56. ^ Pringsheim T, Davenport W, Mackie G, Worthington I, Aubé M, Christie SN, Gladstone J, Becker WJ (March 2012). "Canadian Headache Society guideline for migraine prophylaxis". The Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences. 39 (2 Suppl 2): S1-59. PMID 22683887.
  57. ^ "Butterbur: Uses, Side Effects, Interactions, Dosage, and Warning". webmd.com. Archived from the original on 7 December 2019. Retrieved 7 December 2019.
  58. ^ "Butterbur". National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health (NCCIH). 8 February 2012. Archived from the original on 7 December 2019. Retrieved 7 December 2019.
  59. ^ a b Russo E (May 1998). "Cannabis for migraine treatment: the once and future prescription? An historical and scientific review". Pain. 76 (1–2): 3–8. doi:10.1016/S0304-3959(98)00033-5. PMID 9696453. S2CID 10502945.
  60. ^ "Sex(ism), Drugs, and Migraines: Distillations Podcast and Transcript, Episode 237". Distillations. Science History Institute. January 15, 2019. Retrieved August 28, 2019.
  61. ^ a b Pittler MH, Ernst E.; Ernst (2004). Pittler, Max H (ed.). "Feverfew for preventing migraine". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (1): CD002286. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002286.pub2. PMID 14973986.
  62. ^ Groenewegen WA, Knight DW, Heptinstall S (1992). "6 Progress in the Medicinal Chemistry of the Herb Feverfew". Progress in the medicinal chemistry of the herb feverfew. Vol. 29. pp. 217–38. doi:10.1016/s0079-6468(08)70009-2. ISBN 9780444894724. PMID 1475370. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  63. ^ Barnes J, Anderson LA, Philipson JD (2007). Herbal Medicines (3rd ed.). London: Pharmaceutical Press.
  64. ^ a b EMA. "Assessment report on Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Schultz Bip., herba" (PDF). Europa (web portal). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 November 2020. Retrieved 8 July 2020.
  65. ^ Koehler, PJ; Tfelt-Hansen PC (Nov 2008). "History of methysergide in migraine". Cephalalgia. 28 (11): 1126–35. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2982.2008.01648.x. PMID 18644039. S2CID 22433355.
  66. ^ Silberstein SD, Dodick DW, Lindblad AS, Holroyd K, Harrington M, Mathew NT, et al. (2012). "Randomized, placebo-controlled trial of propranolol added to topiramate in chronic migraine". Neurology. 78 (13): 976–84. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e31824d5846. PMC 3310312. PMID 22377815.
  67. ^ "The Efficacy of L-cysteine in Prevention of Headache Attacks in Migraine Patients". https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02315833
  68. ^ Littarru GP, Tiano L (November 2005). "Clinical aspects of coenzyme Q10: an update". Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care. 8 (6): 641–6. doi:10.1097/01.mco.0000171123.60665.16. PMID 16205466. S2CID 25010508.
  69. ^ a b c d Gelfand AA, Goadsby PJ (September 2016). "The Role of Melatonin in the Treatment of Primary Headache Disorders". Headache (Review). 56 (8): 1257–66. doi:10.1111/head.12862. PMC 5012937. PMID 27316772.
  70. ^ Long R, Zhu Y, Zhou S (January 2019). "Therapeutic role of melatonin in migraine prophylaxis: A systematic review". Medicine. 98 (3): e14099. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000014099. PMC 6370052. PMID 30653130.
  71. ^ Nesbitt AD, Leschziner GD, Peatfield RC (September 2014). "Headache, drugs and sleep". Cephalalgia (Review). 34 (10): 756–66. doi:10.1177/0333102414542662. PMID 25053748. S2CID 33548757.
  72. ^ Nestoriuc Y, Martin A (March 2007). "Efficacy of biofeedback for migraine: a meta-analysis". Pain. 128 (1–2): 111–27. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2006.09.007. PMID 17084028. S2CID 23351902.
  73. ^ Nestoriuc Y, Martin A, Rief W, Andrasik F (September 2008). "Biofeedback treatment for headache disorders: a comprehensive efficacy review". Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback. 33 (3): 125–40. doi:10.1007/s10484-008-9060-3. PMID 18726688. S2CID 29122354.
  74. ^ Schoenen J, Allena M, Magis D (2010). "Neurostimulation therapy in intractable headaches". In Vinken PJ, Bruyn GW (eds.). Headache. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Vol. 97. Elsevier. pp. 443–50. doi:10.1016/S0072-9752(10)97037-1. ISBN 9780444521392. PMID 20816443.
  75. ^ Reed KL, Black SB, Banta CJ, Will KR (March 2010). "Combined occipital and supraorbital neurostimulation for the treatment of chronic migraine headaches: initial experience". Cephalalgia. 30 (3): 260–71. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2982.2009.01996.x. PMID 19732075. S2CID 18639211.
  76. ^ "FDA allows marketing of first medical device to prevent migraine headaches". Food and Drug Administration (Press release). 11 March 2014. Archived from the original on 25 July 2014. Retrieved 25 July 2014.
  77. ^ "FDA approves transcranial magnetic stimulator" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 February 2014.
  78. ^ Tao H, Wang T, Dong X, Guo Q, Xu H, Wan Q (May 2018). "Effectiveness of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation for the treatment of migraine: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". The Journal of Headache and Pain. 19 (1): 42. doi:10.1186/s10194-018-0868-9. PMC 5975046. PMID 29845369. We found significant reduction of monthly headache days
  79. ^ "FDA allows marketing of first medical device to prevent migraine headaches". U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 11 March 2014. Archived from the original on 2016-10-22. Retrieved 2014-07-25.
  80. ^ Schoenen, J; Allena, M; Magis, D (2010). "Neurostimulation therapy in intractable headaches". Handbook of Clinical Neurology. Vol. 97. Elsevier. pp. 443–50. doi:10.1016/S0072-9752(10)97037-1. ISBN 9780444521392. PMID 20816443. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  81. ^ Reed, KL; Black, SB; Banta Cj, 2nd; Will, KR (2010). "Combined occipital and supraorbital neurostimulation for the treatment of chronic migraine headaches: Initial experience". Cephalalgia. 30 (3): 260–71. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2982.2009.01996.x. PMID 19732075. S2CID 18639211.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  82. ^ Leone, M; Cecchini, AP; Franzini, A; Bussone, G (2011). "Neuromodulation in drug-resistant primary headaches: What have we learned?". Neurological Sciences. 32 (Suppl 1): S23–6. doi:10.1007/s10072-011-0554-z. PMID 21533707. S2CID 28256813.
  83. ^ "Ohio State University Medical Center | Ohio State Wexner Medical Center".
  84. ^ Lister, Sam (2006-06-22). "Zapper brings hope to migraine sufferers". The Times. London. Retrieved 2010-05-22.[dead link]
  85. ^ http://www.shns.com
  86. ^ Mohammad, Yousef (2006-06-22). Magnets Zap Migraines. 49th Annual Scientific Meeting of the American Headache Society. Los Angeles, California. Archived from the original on 2006-07-03. Retrieved 2006-07-04.
  87. ^ Linde K, Allais G, Brinkhaus B, Fei Y, Mehring M, Vertosick EA, Vickers A, White AR (June 2016). "Acupuncture for the prevention of episodic migraine". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2018 (6): CD001218. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001218.pub3. PMC 4977344. PMID 27351677.
  88. ^ Chaibi A, Tuchin PJ, Russell MB (April 2011). "Manual therapies for migraine: a systematic review". The Journal of Headache and Pain. 12 (2): 127–33. doi:10.1007/s10194-011-0296-6. PMC 3072494. PMID 21298314.
  89. ^ Millstine D, Chen CY, Bauer B (May 2017). "Complementary and integrative medicine in the management of headache". BMJ. 357: j1805. doi:10.1136/bmj.j1805. PMID 28512119. S2CID 19155758.
  90. ^ Posadzki P, Ernst E (June 2011). "Spinal manipulations for the treatment of migraine: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials". Cephalalgia. 31 (8): 964–70. doi:10.1177/0333102411405226. PMID 21511952. S2CID 31205541.
  91. ^ Radat F (May 2013). "[Stress and migraine]". Revue Neurologique. 169 (5): 406–12. doi:10.1016/j.neurol.2012.11.008. PMID 23608071.
  92. ^ Amin FM, Aristeidou S, Baraldi C, Czapinska-Ciepiela EK, Ariadni DD, Di Lenola D, Fenech C, Kampouris K, Karagiorgis G, Braschinsky M, Linde M (September 2018). "The association between migraine and physical exercise". The Journal of Headache and Pain. 19 (1): 83. doi:10.1186/s10194-018-0902-y. PMC 6134860. PMID 30203180.
  93. ^ a b Sharpe L, Dudeney J, Williams AC, Nicholas M, McPhee I, Baillie A, Welgampola M, McGuire B (July 2019). "Psychological therapies for the prevention of migraine in adults". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 7 (7): CD012295. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012295.pub2. PMC 6603250. PMID 31264211.
  94. ^ "Behavioral Interventions for Migraine Prevention (A Systematic Review)". Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute. 14 July 2022. Archived from the original on 23 August 2023. Retrieved 14 April 2023.
  95. ^ Nestoriuc Y, Martin A; Martin (2007). "Efficacy of biofeedback for migraine: a meta-analysis". Pain. 128 (1–2): 111–27. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2006.09.007. PMID 17084028. S2CID 23351902.
  96. ^ Nestoriuc, Yvonne; Martin, Alexandra (2007). "Efficacy of biofeedback for migraine: A meta-analysis". Pain. 128 (1–2): 111–27. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2006.09.007. PMID 17084028. S2CID 23351902.
  97. ^ Nestoriuc, Y; Martin, A; Rief, W; Andrasik, F (2008). "Biofeedback treatment for headache disorders: A comprehensive efficacy review". Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback. 33 (3): 125–40. doi:10.1007/s10484-008-9060-3. PMID 18726688. S2CID 29122354.
  98. ^ Lee, M. S.; Ernst, E. (2011). "Acupuncture for pain: An overview of Cochrane reviews". Chinese Journal of Integrative Medicine. 17 (3): 187–189. doi:10.1007/s11655-011-0665-7. PMID 21359919. S2CID 21513259.
  99. ^ Linde, Klaus; Allais, Gianni; Brinkhaus, Benno; Fei, Yutong; Mehring, Michael; Vertosick, Emily A.; Vickers, Andrew; White, Adrian R. (2016-06-28). "Acupuncture for the prevention of episodic migraine". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2018 (6): CD001218. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001218.pub3. ISSN 1469-493X. PMC 4977344. PMID 27351677.
  100. ^ Chaibi, Aleksander; Tuchin, Peter J.; Russell, Michael Bjørn (2011). "Manual therapies for migraine: A systematic review". The Journal of Headache and Pain. 12 (2): 127–33. doi:10.1007/s10194-011-0296-6. PMC 3072494. PMID 21298314.
  101. ^ Kung TA, Guyuron B, Cederna PS (January 2011). "Migraine surgery: a plastic surgery solution for refractory migraine headache". Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 127 (1): 181–189. doi:10.1097/PRS.0b013e3181f95a01. PMID 20871488. S2CID 18817383.
  102. ^ Jensen, R.; Stovner, L. J. (2008). "Epidemiology and comorbidity of headache". The Lancet Neurology. 7 (4): 354–361. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(08)70062-0. PMID 18339350. S2CID 9867923.
  103. ^ Shevel E (2007). "Vascular Surgery for Chronic Migraine". Therapy. 4 (4): 451–456. doi:10.2217/14750708.4.4.451. S2CID 73164368.
  104. ^ Mosser, W.; Guyuron, B.; Janis, E.; Rohrich, J. (Feb 2004). "The Anatomy of the Greater Occipital Nerve: Implications for the Etiology of Migraine Headaches". Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 113 (2): 693–697, discussion 697–700. doi:10.1097/01.PRS.0000101502.22727.5D. ISSN 0032-1052. PMID 14758238. S2CID 5698125.
  105. ^ Poggi, T.; Grizzell, E.; Helmer, D. (Jul 2008). "Confirmation of Surgical Decompression to Relieve Migraine Headaches". Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 122 (1): 115–122, discussion 122–4. doi:10.1097/PRS.0b013e31817742da. ISSN 0032-1052. PMID 18594393. S2CID 14548980.
  106. ^ Silberstein S, Tfelt-Hansen P, Dodick DW, Limmroth V, Lipton RB, Pascual J, et al. (2008). "Guidelines for controlled trials of prophylactic treatment of chronic migraine in adults". Cephalalgia. 28 (5): 484–95. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2982.2008.01555.x. PMID 18294250. S2CID 42999636.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prevention_of_migraine_attacks&oldid=1256195264"