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Pre-Māori settlement of New Zealand theories

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The mainstream view of the Polynesian settlement of New Zealand and the Chatham Islands as representing the end-point of a long chain of island-hopping voyages in the South Pacific.

Since the early 1900s it has been accepted by archaeologists and anthropologists that Polynesians (who became the Māori) were the first ethnic group to settle in New Zealand (first proposed by Captain James Cook).[1][2] Before that time and until the 1920s, however, a small group of prominent anthropologists proposed that the Moriori people of the Chatham Islands represented a pre-Māori group of people from Melanesia, who once lived across all of New Zealand and were replaced by the Māori.[3] While this claim was soon disproven by academics, it was widely incorporated into school textbooks during the 20th century, most notably in the School Journal. This theory has been followed by modern claims of a pre-Māori settlement of New Zealand by various ethnic groups. Today, such theories are considered to be pseudohistorical and negationist by scholars and historians.[4][5][6][better source needed][7]

In recent times, a greater variety of speculation of New Zealand's first settlers has occurred outside of academia. These ideas typically incorporate aspects of conspiracy theories as they are in opposition to the last 100 years of academic research.[8][9] The common acceptance of these unsubstantiated theories has been used by prominent politicians and public figures to attack Māori politics and culture.[3][10]

Māori oral traditions

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Further information: Māori mythology
See also: Ui-te-Rangiora
Statue of the legendary explorer Kupe

Māori traditions speak of all manner of spirits, fairy folk, giants, and ogres living in parts of New Zealand when Māori arrived. The pale-skinned patupaiarehe are perhaps the most well-known, of which Ngāti Kura, Ngāti Korakorako, and Ngāti Tūrehu are said to be sub-groupings.[11][12] In oral tradition, patupaiarehe taught weaving and net-making to the Māori, and could not come out during the day.[13][14] Ponaturi were similar in that they could not tolerate sunlight, so they lived in the ocean.[12]

In south Westland, Kāti Māhaki ki Makaawhio's Te Tauraka Waka a Maui Marae[15] is named in honour of a tradition stating that Māui landed his canoe in Bruce Bay when he arrived in New Zealand.[16] In a myth collected from Lake Ellesmere / Te Waihora, Māui threw a giant to the sea and buried him underneath a mountain to create the area around Banks Peninsula.[17]

Kupe and Ngahue were both contemporaries famous for exploring New Zealand before notable migration voyages began.[18] The latter discovered pounamu,[19] the former introduced the first dogs (kurī) and created Lake Grassmere / Kapara Te Hau to drown Te Kāhui Tipua – who were described as 'giants' or 'ogres' living in Marlborough at the time.[20] Both Kupe and Ngahue returned to Hawaiki,[21] though Ngahue came back with the Arawa after a war with Uenuku.[22]

Other Māori traditions exclude the existence of other humans in New Zealand upon their arrival. A well-known story is how Māui fished up the North Island out of the Pacific Ocean, which Te Rangi Hīroa of Ngāti Mutunga suggests might be a way to say he 'discovered' the island out of the blue, though the rest of the myth is very fanciful in saying parts of his canoe became different areas of both islands.[23]

In the traditions of Ngāi Tahu's Waitaha descendants, Rākaihautū of the Uruaokapuarangi was the first man to set foot in the South Island by digging up the many lakes and waterways and filling them with fish. He brought with him the ancestors of the groups Te Kāhui Tipua, Te Kāhui Roko, and Te Kāhui Waitaha.[24][25] According to Sir Āpirana Ngata of Ngāti Porou, Rākaihautū did not go south at all, but rather his legend was brought down there.[26] Some accounts may say he is an ancestor of Toi through a daughter that stayed behind in Te Patunuioāio, who himself is an ancestor of Kāti Māmoe, Te Kāhea, Ngāpuhi, Ngāti Rāhiri Tumutumu, and Hāwea in some tellings.[27] Hāwea might have alternatively been a different tribe that arrived on the Kapakitua before or at a similar time to Waitaha before merging with them, with other ancient tribal groupings possibly including the Maero and Rapuwai.[28][29]

In Ngāi Tūhoe traditions, Toi's 'ancestor' Tīwakawaka was the first to settle the country aboard Te Aratauwhāiti, "but only his name is remembered".[21] A man named Kahukura took Toi's own canoe, the Horouta, and returned to Hawaiki. He sent kūmara back to the new lands with the canoe.[30]

Early European speculation

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See also: Māori migration canoes § "Great fleet" hypothesis, and Thor Heyerdahl
Ethnographers Elsdon Best and Percy Smith, the two most prominent academic proponents of pre-Māori settlement.[31]

Julius von Haast suggested in 1871 that an early Polynesian people, who hunted the moa, were superseded by the Māori who introduced agriculture and lived in small villages.[3][32] Ideas about Aryan migrations became popular during the 19th century, and these were applied to New Zealand. Edward Tregear's The Aryan Maori (1885) suggested that Aryans from India migrated to southeast Asia and thence to the islands of the Pacific, including New Zealand.[33] These ideas were often linked with the hypothesis that Melanesians were the first to occupy the islands of the Pacific Ocean and were later replaced by the Polynesian peoples.[34]

Two works published in 1915, Percy Smith's book The Lore of the Whare-wānanga: Part II and Elsdon Best's journal article "Maori and Maruiwi" in the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, theorised about pre-Māori settlement. Their work inspired theories that the Māori had displaced a more primitive, at least part-Melanesian pre-Māori population of Moriori in mainland New Zealand – and that the Moriori of the Chatham Islands were the last remnant of this earlier race.[3] Articles in three issues of the New Zealand School Journal in 1916 followed, saying that Moriori preceded Māori people,[35] that they were Melanesian,[3] and that Māori had driven them from mainland New Zealand to refuge in the Chatham Islands.[8] Historian Michael King said that "for hundreds of thousands of New Zealand children, the version of Moriori history carried in the School Journal and other publications which drew from that source, reinforced over 60-odd years by primary school teachers, was the one that lodged in the national imagination".[36] In 2010 three special editions of the School Journal were published to correct the inaccuracies,[8][37] and the New Zealand government officially apologised for the journal's errors in settlement of the Moriori Waitangi Tribunal claim.[38]

Starting in the 1920s, H. D. Skinner and others overturned the hypothesis about a pre-Māori people by showing the continuation and adaptation of the 'Archaic' Māori culture into the 'Classic' Māori culture. This negated the need for pre-Māori settlement in models of prehistoric New Zealand. Since this time archeology has become a more professional and scientifically rigorous practice and the model of Polynesians arriving in an uninhabited New Zealand and adapting to its environment has not fundamentally changed.[39]

Recent revivals of pre-Māori settlement theories

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Modern New Zealand archaeology has clarified the origin and dates of the earliest migrations, establishing firmly that Māori were the first people to settle New Zealand, in line with Māori oral history. As far back as the 19th century, any claim to the contrary has been considered to be pseudohistorical due to a lack of evidence.[citation needed][clarification needed]

Some conspiracy theorists have continued to speculate that what is now New Zealand was discovered by Melanesians, Celts, Greeks, Egyptians or the Chinese, before the arrival of the Polynesian ancestors of the Māori.[40][41] Some of these ideas have also been supported by politicians and media personalities.[42][43] For example, Don Brash, formerly leader of the New Zealand National Party, is a high-profile proponent of pre-Māori settlement theories.[44][45] An earlier proponent of the racist theory of a pre-Polynesian European settlement of New Zealand was by white supremacist and Holocaust denier Kerry Bolton. In his 1987 pamphlet Lords of the Soil,[46] he states that "Polynesia has been occupied by peoples of the Europoid race since ancient times".[47] Other books presenting such theories include The Great Divide: The Story of New Zealand & its Treaty (2012) by journalist Ian Wishart,[48] and To the Ends of the Earth by Maxwell C. Hill, Gary Cook and Noel Hilliam, which claims without evidence that New Zealand was discovered by explorers from ancient Egypt and Greece.[49][50]

Historians and archaeologists dismiss any such theories. Michael King wrote in his history of New Zealand, "Despite a plethora of amateur theories about Melanesian, South American, Egyptian, Phoenician and Celtic colonisation of New Zealand, there is not a shred of evidence that the first human settlers were anything other than Polynesian",[4] and Richard Hill, professor of New Zealand Studies at Victoria University of Wellington, said in 2012, "Not one of [the theories] has ever passed any remote academic scrutiny."[5] Hugh Laracy of the University of Auckland called them "wild speculation" that has been "thoroughly disposed of by academic specialists".[51] Historian Vincent O'Malley regards the theories as having a political element, seeking to cast doubt on the status of Māori as the first people of New Zealand and as Treaty of Waitangi partners.[5] Amateur archaeologist Garry Law regards the theories as having a racist element, seeking to undermine Waitangi Tribunal claims.[7] Scott Hamilton in "No to Nazi Pseudo-history: an Open Letter" further explains objections to the theories of Bolton and Martin Doutré (and the website Ancient Celtic New Zealand).[52]

Claims of evidence

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The Kaimanawa Wall, a natural outcrop of ignimbrite with regular joint sets, which are interpreted by some to be man-made

A feature that has been put forward by conspiracy theorists as evidence of pre-Polynesian settlers is the Kaimanawa Wall, which some claim is a remnant of ancient human construction that the Māori could not have built because they did not build with stone in such a way.[53][54] The wall formation was inspected by an archaeologist and a geologist. Neither saw evidence of a human origin and they concluded the formation is a natural ignimbrite outcrop formed 330,000 years ago.[53][54]

Archaeologist Neville Ritchie of the New Zealand Department of Conservation observed "matching micro-irregularities along the joints." This indicated that the blocks in the wall were too perfectly matched. He also observed the joints were neither straight nor truly horizontal nor perpendicular, indicating the joint alignments were too poorly constructed. Ritchie concluded the blocks are a natural formation based on the presence of matching micro-irregularities in blocks and imperfect joint alignment.[53]

Peter Wood, a geologist of the Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences, inspected the blocks and concluded they are natural fractures in "jointed Rangitaiki ignimbrite, a 330,000 year old volcanic rock that is common in the Taupō Volcanic Zone."[53] Both vertical and horizontal joints are common. Fractures in the Rangitaiki ignimbrite formed when it cooled and contracted after flowing into place during an eruption.[53]

Boulders that were originally on a hill in Silverdale, Auckland, have been argued by Martin Doutré in a self-published 1999 book to be artefacts left by a pre-Polynesian Celtic population, who according to the theory came to be known as the patupaiarehe, and used the boulders as part of a system spanning around the area, used for calendar tracking and survey functions.[55][56] History professor K. R. Howe described Doutre as "a self-styled archaeo-astronomer" who argues that certain configurations of stones in the New Zealand landscape are remnants of mathematically advanced astronomical devices built by ancient Celts who had links with the builders of Stonehenge and the Great Pyramid."[57] Bruce Hayward, a Geological Society spokesman, says the boulders were formed in the ocean 70 million years ago and naturally pushed into the hills over time.[56]

Other supposed structures and creations of pre-Polynesian settlers are described as the Waipoua 'stone city',[10] the 'Waitapu Valley (Maunganui Bluff) solar observatory' including Puketapu hill and a mountain at Hokianga, a 'stone village' in the Tapapakanga Regional Park, and all manner of petroglyphs and carvings found throughout the islands. Most of these ideas are propounded by Doutré.[10]

In 2017, journalist Mike Barrington published a lengthy piece in the Northern Advocate claiming evidence that a pre-Māori Celtic population existed in the modern-day Northland Region, thanks to the efforts of amateur archeologist Noel Hilliam. Barrington reported that Hilliam had excavated two skulls and sent them to "Edinburgh University", where an unnamed forensic pathologist had examined them and decided that they had Welsh origins.[10] When contacted by Vice, the University of Edinburgh denied this, and responded that "nobody [here] knows anything about this ... we are not aware of any academic from the University of Edinburgh having contributed to this project."[58] Barrington and Hilliam were largely ridiculed for their claims, particularly for the forensic facial reconstructions in the article,[58] and for Hilliam insisting that he had found a "distinctively Welsh skull".[10] Māori questioned whether Hilliam had robbed Māori urupā (burial sites) of the skulls. In New Zealand, it is illegal to disturb or destroy an archaeological site, and can result in substantial fines and a criminal conviction.[59] Heritage New Zealand investigated how Hilliam had obtained the skulls and whether he had sent human remains out of New Zealand, but found no evidence beyond his claims to have done so.[60]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ See 1904 paper by A. Shand on The Early History of the Morioris
  2. ^ Shapiro, H. L. (1940). "The physical anthropology of the Maori-Moriori". The Journal of the Polynesian Society. XLIX (193): 1–15. JSTOR 20702788.
  3. ^ a b c d e Blank, Jacinta (2007). Imagining Moriori: A History of Ideas of a People in the Twentieth Century (MA thesis). University of Canterbury. doi:10.26021/4630.
  4. ^ a b King 2003, p. 29.
  5. ^ a b c Quilliam, Rebecca (27 December 2012). "Historians rubbish claims of academic conspiracy". The New Zealand Herald. APNZ. Archived from the original on 18 March 2016.
  6. ^ Doyle, Jacob (17 June 2020). "The Moriori myth has enabled racism against Māori in Aotearoa for generations". Stuff. Retrieved 8 March 2023.
  7. ^ a b Law, Garry. "Alternative archaeology". Archaeopedia.com. Retrieved 12 February 2013.
  8. ^ a b c Neale, Imogen (20 March 2011). "Rewriting the history of Moriori". Stuff. Retrieved 18 November 2024.
  9. ^ "TVNZ doco claiming Celts were here before Māori has been removed from OnDemand service". Stuff. 20 August 2018. Retrieved 16 December 2018.
  10. ^ a b c d e Hamilton, Scott (22 May 2017). "The white tangata whenua, and other bullshit from the 'One New Zealand' crew". The Spinoff. Retrieved 15 November 2024.
  11. ^ Royal, Te Ahukaramū Charles (2005). "First peoples in Maori tradition: Patupaiarehe, Turehu and other inhabitants". Te Ara Enyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 28 June 2020.
  12. ^ a b Wikaira, Martin (2007). "Patupaiarehe and ponaturi". Te Ara Enyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 28 June 2020.
  13. ^ Hindmarsh, Gerard. "Flax – the enduring fibre". New Zealand Geographic. Retrieved 13 June 2020.
  14. ^ Tregear, Edward (1891). The Maori-Polynesian comparative dictionary. Wellington: Lyon and Blair. Retrieved 13 June 2020.
  15. ^ "Te Rūnanga o Makaawhio contact page". Te Rūnanga o Makaawhio. Retrieved 13 June 2020.
  16. ^ "Bruce Bay". Westland District Council. Archived from the original on 13 June 2020. Retrieved 13 June 2020.
  17. ^ "Horomaka or Te Pataka o Rakaihautū — Banks Peninsula". Christchurch City Libraries. Retrieved 11 June 2020.
  18. ^ Taonui, Rāwiri (2005). "Canoe traditions: Greenstone adze". Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 12 June 2020.
  19. ^ Best, Elsdon (1934). "Voyage of Kupe and Ngahue from Eastern Polynesia to New Zealand". The Maori As He Was: A Brief Account of Maori Life as it was in Pre-European Days. Wellington: N.Z.Dominion Museum. p. 22.
  20. ^ Mitchell, Hilary; Mitchell, John (2005). "Te Tau Ihu tribes: Early Traditions". Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 12 June 2020.
  21. ^ a b Biggs, Bruce Grandison (1966). "Tradition". In McLintock, A. H. (ed.). Maori Myths and Traditions. Wellington: Government Printer. p. 450. Retrieved 11 June 2020.
  22. ^ Tapsell, Paul (2005). "Te Arawa: Origins". Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 12 June 2020.
  23. ^ Hīroa, Te Rangi (1976) [1949]. The Coming of the Maori (Second ed.). Wellington: Whitcombe and Tombs. p. 5. ISBN 0723304084.
  24. ^ "Kōrero Tuku Iho – Our History". Te Taumutu Rūnanga. Retrieved 28 June 2020.
  25. ^ "Rākaihautū". University of Canterbury. Retrieved 28 June 2020.
  26. ^ Ngata, A. T. (1950). Grace, John Te Herekiekie (ed.). "The Io Cult – early migration – puzzle of the canoes)". The Journal of the Polynesian Society. LIX: 338. Retrieved 28 June 2020.
  27. ^ Graham, George (1922). "Te heke-o-nga-toko-toru. (The migration of the three.)". The Journal of the Polynesian Society. XXXI. Retrieved 28 June 2020.
  28. ^ Stephenson, Janet; Bauchop, Heather; Petchey, Peter (2004). "Bannockburn Heritage Landscape Study" (PDF). Retrieved 12 June 2020.
  29. ^ "Ancient Iwi". Ngāi Tahu. Retrieved 28 June 2020.
  30. ^ Taonui, Rāwiri (2005). "Canoe traditions – Canoes of the East Coast". Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 November 2024.
  31. ^ Photograph by kind permission of the Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand, reference number: 1/2-028237-F
  32. ^ Howe, K. R. (8 February 2005). "Ideas about Māori origins – 1880s–1970s: Moriori origins; the Great Fleet". Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 November 2024.
  33. ^ Howe, K. R. (8 February 2005). "Ideas about Māori origins – 1840s–1930s: the Aryan theory". Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 November 2024.
  34. ^ Howe 2003, p. 34.
  35. ^ O'Brien, Gregory (2007). A Nest of Singing Birds: 100 Years of the New Zealand School Journal. Wellington: Learning Media. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-7903-1963-6.
  36. ^ King 2003, p. 46.
  37. ^ Swarbrick, Nancy (20 June 2012). "School Journal: cover, 2010". Te Ara: The New Zealand Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2 April 2022.
  38. ^ "Deed of Settlement between the Crown and Moriori" (PDF). New Zealand Government. 13 July 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 April 2022. Retrieved 8 April 2022.
  39. ^ Howe 2003, pp. 166–178.
  40. ^ Wright, Matthew. "Did the Spanish or Chinese visit New Zealand before Polynesians?". The Listener. Archived from the original on 9 May 2019. Retrieved 2 February 2019 – via Noted.
  41. ^ "1 The Waitaha People – a Chinese colony that settled in New Zealand 2000 years ago". Gavin Menzies. Retrieved 2 February 2019.
  42. ^ Newman, Muriel (21 January 2006). "History in the Making". NZCPR.com. New Zealand Centre for Political Research. Retrieved 2 February 2019.
  43. ^ Keir, Bill (31 January 2007). "Agenda-driven history". NZ Skeptics. Retrieved 2 February 2019.
  44. ^ "Don Brash – Ragging on Te Reo". Radio New Zealand. 2 December 2017. Retrieved 15 December 2018. Time=30:20
  45. ^ Mulligan, Jesse (9 August 2018). "Debunking the myth about the Moriori". RNZ. Retrieved 13 March 2022.
  46. ^ Kerry R. Bolton (1987). Lords of the Soil. Petone: Realist Publications. OCLC 154233606.
  47. ^ Sargeant, Barrie (2 December 2004). "Kerry Bolton – a nut, or just a misunderstood Mormon/Satanist/Nazi?". Fightdemback. Archived from the original on 7 March 2014. Retrieved 13 February 2013.
  48. ^ Wishart, Ian (2012). The Great Divide: The Story of New Zealand and its Treaty. Auckland: Howling at the Moon. ISBN 9780987657367.
  49. ^ Hill, Maxwell C. (2012). To the Ends of the Earth. Taupiri: Ancient History Publications. ISBN 9780473206871.
  50. ^ "Book claims European explorers were here first". 3 News. 23 March 2012. Archived from the original on 8 October 2012. Retrieved 13 February 2013.
  51. ^ "Stoush over pre-Maori colonisers theory". Stuff.co.nz, Fairfax NZ News. 28 December 2012.
  52. ^ Hamilton, Scott (18 November 2008). "No to Nazi Pseudo-history: an Open Letter". Scoop Review of Books.
  53. ^ a b c d e Ritchie, Neville (1 November 1996). "A New Age myth: The Kaimanawa Wall". NZ Skeptics. Retrieved 15 November 2024.
  54. ^ a b Howe, K. R. (2005). "Ideas about Māori origins: The Kaimanawa Wall". Te Ara Enyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 28 June 2020.
  55. ^ Doutré, Martin (1999). Ancient Celtic New Zealand. Auckland: Dé Danann Publishers. ISBN 9780473053673.
  56. ^ a b Thompson, Wayne (6 May 2009). "Call to save hilltop boulders". The New Zealand Herald.
  57. ^ Howe 2003, p. 148.
  58. ^ a b McClure, Tess (18 May 2017). "Grave robbers with far-right links are stealing ancestral Māori skulls". Vice. Retrieved 30 March 2024.
  59. ^ "Amateur Northland historian asked to explain source of skulls". Northern Advocate. 30 May 2017. Retrieved 15 November 2024 – via nzherald.co.nz.
  60. ^ "No legal action over Noel Hilliam's 'Welsh' Maori skulls". Northern Advocate. 15 August 2017. Retrieved 15 November 2024 – via nzherald.co.nz.

Sources

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