Jump to content

Archaeology of New Zealand

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

One Tree Hill pā (fortified village), Auckland[1]

New Zealand's archaeology started in the early 1800s and was largely conducted by amateurs with little regard for meticulous study.[2] However, starting slowly in the 1870s detailed research answered questions about human culture, that have international relevance and wide public interest.[3]

Archaeology has, along with oral traditions, defined New Zealand's prehistory (c. 1300 – c. 1642) and protohistory (c. 1642 – c. 1800) and has been a valuable aid in solving some later historical problems. Academically New Zealand's human prehistory is broadly divided into the periods of Archaic (~paleolithic then ~mesolithic after c. 1300 AD) and Classic (~neolithic) after c. 1500 AD, based on Māori culture. Eurasian labels do not perfectly fit as some level of horticulture was always present in northern New Zealand, even existing at the same time as megafauna. More simply it can also be divided into time periods of pre and post European contact. Large poorly documented sections of New Zealand's more recent history have also been supplemented by archaeological research, such as at old battle sites or early urban centres.[4][5]

Debated questions in New Zealand's pre-contact archaeology

[edit]

Many questions about pre-contact New Zealand have been answered by archaeology and for most it is unlikely that new information will radically change our understanding. However some questions are still debated in the recent academic press in the hope that a new argument or data may bring resolution.

Date of first Māori arrival and settlement

[edit]

First attempts to date the arrival of Maori in New Zealand, by 19th-century scholars such as S. Percy Smith, were based on genealogies and oral histories, many of which – when assigned an average generation length of 25 years – converged on a settlement date around 1350 AD, while others appeared to go back much further. This resulted in the classic theory, which all schoolchildren were once taught, that New Zealand had been discovered around 750 AD, then settled by later migrations, culminating in the "Great Fleet" of seven canoes around 1350 AD.[6][7][8]

When radiocarbon dating started to be used in the 1950s, it appeared to support the idea of early settlement, though the "Great Fleet" itself fell out of favour when scholars showed that there were inconsistencies in the genealogies on which Smith had based his theory.[9] This was replaced by the idea of gradual settlement over many centuries, but this in turn has proved to be mistaken.[10] In 1989, for example, changes in the New Zealand biota, dated to about 1000 AD, were assumed to be linked to human settlement.[11] However, by the mid-1990s, as radiocarbon dating methods were improved and sources of error better understood, it was realised that the early dates were not reliable and that the most reliable radiocarbon dates all pointed to a more recent first settlement, closer to 1300 AD or even later,[12] In 1999, a sample from the Wairau Bar site gave a "late" age of 1230–1282 AD.[13] which roughly coincided with charcoal and pollen evidence of forest fires that may or may not have been human-lit.[14] The Wairau Bar settlement is known to be a first settler site because both its human remains and its artefacts came from tropical Polynesia.[15]

Against this emerging evidence for late settlement was some seemingly contradictory evidence from the first radiocarbon dating of ancient rat bones in 1996 which gave unusually early dates – as early as 10 AD – and led its author to suggest that rats had been brought here by early human voyagers who did not stay.[16] Some scholars saw the early rat bone dates as confirmation of their theory that humans had settled in New Zealand even earlier than the classic theory had suggested, living in small numbers for a thousand years or so without leaving artefacts or skeletal remains.[17] However, further investigation found that those early rat bone results had been flawed, all coming from one laboratory during a limited time period, while all subsequent dating has found recent arrival times for both rats and humans.[18] By 2008, there was little doubt that rats came to New Zealand with Māori no earlier than 1280 AD.[19] This was confirmed in 2011 by a meta-analysis of dates from throughout the Pacific, which showed a sudden pulse of migration leading to all of New Zealand (including the Chatham Islands) being settled no earlier than c. 1290 AD.[20]

While most researchers now use this late-13th-century date,[21] others are revising it upward even further to around 1320 AD or later, based on new evidence from moa egg shells and from the Kaharoa eruption of Mount Tarawera (1314 ± 6 AD), whose tephra forms a geological layer below all well-dated human and rat sites.[22][23] Some researchers now conclude that the weight of all the radiocarbon and DNA evidence points to New Zealand having been settled rapidly in a mass migration sometime after the Tarawera eruption, somewhere in the decades between 1320 and 1350 CE[24] – which suggests that the "Great Fleet" theory, and the genealogical calculations on which it was based, were not totally inaccurate after all.

Population growth rates

[edit]

The debate over Māori population size has two main areas of interest: how many settlers came to New Zealand and what was the population when European contact occurred. The second number is partly a historical question, and estimated populations have not strayed far from Captain Cook's first estimate of 100,000,[25] with some researches going up to 150,000. This number, coupled with an inferred low growth rate, has led researchers to require either a large founding population (more than 300 people) or an early settlement date (600–850 AD).[26][27] Therefore, a date of c. 1300 AD requires a mass migration from tropical Polynesia,[28] even though mitochondrial DNA implies a medium[clarification needed] number of approximately 70 women settlers.[29]

This story is further complicated by the South Island's slow growth rates throughout prehistory.[22] This is because kumara was extremely difficult to grow in the South Island even during warm climatic periods.[30][31] There is evidence that the "little ice age" affected New Zealand and caused a shrinking of the population.[21] The extent of this cold period in New Zealand is unknown, but it may have peaked in the early 18th century.[32] By 1886 diseases like measles, war and disruption led to a Māori population of about 40,000 and 2,000 in the North and South Islands respectively.[33]

Transitions in Māori culture

[edit]
Archaic middens show that in many settlements seals were a more important food source than moa.[2]
Pounamu objects require different working techniques to other rocks due to their hardness.

Māori culture has been in constant adaptation to New Zealand's changing environment. From the late 1950s onward the terms "Archaic" and "Classic" culture have been used to describe the early and late phases of pre-contact Māori,[3] with "Archaic" replacing the older term "moa hunter" as the hunter-gatherer society lasted beyond the megafauna (as with Eurasia's Mesolithic).

The Archaic and Classic labels were intentionally chronological and not descriptive. They did not offer a definitive definition of either cultural period that could be used across time and space; particularly in locations like the southern South Island, where Classic tribes may migrate to regions where only an Archaic lifestyle was possible.[2] Various transitional cultural artifacts and models have been proposed; however, there is still a dearth of evidence for a clear middle phase.[34] Currently the Archaic culture is seen as semi nomadic hunter-gatherers with small gardens and populations, while the later Classic culture had large gardens and fortified permanent villages. Kumara cultivation was limited to the north until the Classic period, when building of storage pits and gardening methods allowed its storage over winter further south.[34] In many sites in New Zealand the absence of a middle phase or the constraint of only two options has led to other interpretations, including a sevenfold evolution of boom and bust cycles.[35] Growing kumara would have been just possible in the north of the South Island during some climatic conditions.[30]

Topic[34] Archaic Transition Classic
Environment Original landscape (some fire) throughout New Zealand Fire and deforestation Modified landscape mostly in North Island
Lifestyle Hunter gatherers over large areas of New Zealand, but limited mass migration across country. Undefended settlements and little warfare, little slavery, burial near settlements. Climatic and economic change Localised living, with mass migration, Pā and warfare, slavery common, cannibalism?, hidden burial far from village.
Tools Conservative continuance of older Polynesian culture Adaptation to new environment Pounamu (jade) carving
Houses Seasonal (wharerau) Over hunting and extinctions Permanent (wharepuni)
Food Big game hunting and small gardens Commodification of production Small game hunting and large gardens
Politics Small groups (whānau to hapū) Increasing social complexity Large groups (hapū to iwi)

Communication and migration

[edit]
Archaic Māori objects from Wairau Bar, note the obsidian (top left) from the Taupo Volcanic Zone.
Waka (boat) recovered from the Taieri River plains.

As the early settlers to New Zealand came in great numbers with supplies for planting numerous crop types it is believed that it was a planned migration to a known location. However while there is some speculation from non archaeological sources that migration to New Zealand continued throughout the Archaic period,[36] evidence is absent in the archaeological record, and there is also no evidence for domestic pigs and chickens from the Pacific making it to New Zealand - something would have been expected if trade networks had been built.[25]

The early Māori did, however, maintain the technology for long sea voyages – reaching the Chatham Islands about 1500 CE, where they developed into the separate Moriori people.[37]

The earliest archaeological sites in New Zealand have implements from tropical Polynesia.[38] There is also evidence that obsidian was traded throughout New Zealand from soon after arrival. However it was only in the sixteenth century that pounamu (jade) was traded around New Zealand, with a different supply network to the obsidian.[39] Earthquakes caused changing living patterns and the movement of people.[40]

The Māori language has changed little in the 700 years since it separated from Cook Islands Māori.

Resource management in a new environment

[edit]

The ability of pre-contact Māori to manage resources and foresee ecological collapses has been the source of much debate.[2][41] Natural fires were rare in New Zealand, yet much of the country was covered in dry forest, early Māori didn't protect fire-prone areas and there is no evidence of systematic burning of less fire-prone ones.[42] Many New Zealand species may have been heading for slow extinction after Polynesian settlement.[2] The extinction of the mega fauna (moa) seems to have occurred quickly, within 100 years.[43] The first settlers came to New Zealand from tropical Polynesia and adapted to a temperate environment while preserving many of their old practices. Some conservative use of tropical Polynesian methods lasted well into the Archaic period.[44]

Historical archaeology

[edit]

Historical archaeology in New Zealand started late and grew slowly; it was only by the 1960s that European structures were being systematically excavated.[45][46] One example is the evidence left by Taranaki Māori political prisoners who worked pounamu in the Dunedin jail in the late 1800s.[47] there is also interest in the study of post-contact Māori sites.[48]

History of archaeology

[edit]

Early archaeology in New Zealand was performed by anthropologists and private collectors of Māori artifacts. Many sites were destroyed by careless scavenging or poorly documented research.[2][49] Systematical research was first conducted by the museums from the main cities, followed by anthropology departments in the universities of Auckland and Otago. In 1955 the New Zealand Archaeological Association was founded.[50]

During this time in New Zealand the study of Māori oral tradition was more influential than archaeological techniques. The coming of the Māori "Great Fleet" to New Zealand was inferred to be in 1350 AD solely from traditional evidence (similar to modern estimates from carbon dating).[49]

In the 21st century high resolution Landsat data was being used to interpret archaeological sites,[51] although there was some doubt about the effectiveness of some modern tools.[52] Archaeology departments conduct research from the university of Otago, Auckland and Canterbury. New Zealand archaeology is published in the Journal of Pacific Archaeology, the Journal of the Polynesian Society and in other international journals.

List of notable archaeological sites

[edit]
See also: Heritage New Zealand

Exceptional archaeological sites are included in the national register (administered by Heritage New Zealand) in five groups: historic places (Category 1 and 2), historic areas, Wāhi Tūpuna (practical sites), Wāhi Tapu (spiritual sites) and Wahi Tapu areas.[53] New Zealand has thousands of pre-contact sites, many of which are documented by the Historic Places Trust. Only a small fraction of these have detailed published archaeological reports. For example, in the South Island there are 550 rock art sites and 107 in the North Island and 6956 Pā in all New Zealand.[54][4] The types of features present in New Zealand pre European archaeology are pā, storage pits, gardens (stone rows and banks), house floors, terraces, trenches, umu (earth ovens), middens, quarries, rock art and changes to the local flora.[4]

Date Period Site name Type Region Research Photo Grid reference
c. 1750[55] Classic Huriawa Peninsula[56] Pā Otago Te Pā a Te Wera, reserve, and archaeological sites
45°38′26″S 170°39′59″E / 45.640617°S 170.666309°E / -45.640617; 170.666309
Kaingaroa rock art[57] Rock art Taupo 38°27′S 176°43′E / 38.45°S 176.71°E / -38.45; 176.71
Both Motutapu Island[58] Pā and settlement Auckland Transition from Archaic to Classic, with well dated ash layer from Rangitoto (left in image).
36°46′07″S 176°42′28″E / 36.768654°S 176.707640°E / -36.768654; 176.707640
Both Opihi rock art[59] Rock art South Canterbury List number 9784 Historic Places Trust.[60]
44°11′50″S 171°01′09″E / 44.197327°S 171.019271°E / -44.197327; 171.019271
c.1206 (from 1974)[61] Archaic Papatowai[62] Settlement Otago Important early site for the study of Polynesian archaeology.
46°33′43″S 169°28′34″E / 46.562°S 169.476°E / -46.562; 169.476
Rangikapiti[4] Pā Northland Pre-European contact fortified village
34°59′06″S 173°31′32″E / 34.984874°S 173.525565°E / -34.984874; 173.525565
1300s[63] Archaic Shag River mouth Settlement Otago Seasonality of fishing[64] 45°28′54″S 170°48′57″E / 45.481573°S 170.815767°E / -45.481573; 170.815767
Classic Te Kora Pā Taranaki Large Pā complex, site of early work by Elsdon Best.[65] 39°07′59″S 173°59′19″E / 39.132972°S 173.988664°E / -39.132972; 173.988664
1288–1300 Archaic Wairau Bar[15] Settlement Marlborough Most thoroughly studied Archaic settlement.[66]
41°30′30″S 174°03′53″E / 41.508458°S 174.064800°E / -41.508458; 174.064800

Notable archaeologists

[edit]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Mangonui area". www.doc.govt.nz. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
  2. ^ a b c d e f West, Jonathan (2017). The Face of Nature: An Environmental History of the Otago Peninsula. Otago University Press. ISBN 9781927322383.
  3. ^ a b Barber, Ian (1995). "Journal of the Polynesian Society: Constructions Of Change: A History Of Early Maori Culture Sequences, By Ian Barber, P 357-396". www.jps.auckland.ac.nz. Retrieved 13 December 2018.
  4. ^ a b c d Jones, Kevin L. (2007). The Penguin Field Guide to New Zealand Archaeology. Penguin Books. ISBN 9780143020707.
  5. ^ Constantine, Ellie (15 November 2010). "Artefacts hold insight to our past". Otago Daily Times Online News. Retrieved 25 December 2018.
  6. ^ Howe, K.R. (8 February 2005). "Ideas of Māori origins". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Archived from the original on 1 December 2019. Retrieved 19 February 2019.
  7. ^ Roberton, J.B.W. (1956). "Genealogies as a basis for Maori chronology". Journal of the Polynesian Society. 65 (1): 45–54.
  8. ^ Te Hurinui, Pei (1958). "Maori genealogies". Journal of the Polynesian Society. 67 (2): 162–165.
  9. ^ Simmons, David. "The great New Zealand myth: A study of the discovery and origin traditions of the Maori". H.W. Reed.
  10. ^ Walters, Richard; Buckley, Hallie; Jacomb, Chris; Matisoo-Smith, Elizabeth (7 October 2017). "Mass Migration and the Polynesian Settlement of New Zealand". Journal of World Prehistory. 30 (4): 351–376. doi:10.1007/s10963-017-9110-y.
  11. ^ McGlone, M.S (1989). "The Polynesian settlement of New Zealand in relation to environmental and biotic changes". New Zealand Journal of Ecology. 12: 115–129. JSTOR 24053254.
  12. ^ Anderson, Atholl; Spriggs, Matthew (1993). "Late colonization of East Polynesia". Antiquity. 67 (255): 200–217. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00045324. ISSN 1745-1744. S2CID 162638670.
  13. ^ Jacomb, Chris; Anderson, Atholl; Higham, Thomas (1999). "Dating the first New Zealanders: the chronology of Wairau Bar". Antiquity. 73 (280): 420–427. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00088360. ISSN 1745-1744. S2CID 161058755.
  14. ^ McGlone, M.; Wilmshurst, Janet M. (1 July 1999). "Dating initial Maori environmental impact in New Zealand". Quaternary International. 59 (1): 5–16. Bibcode:1999QuInt..59....5M. doi:10.1016/S1040-6182(98)00067-6. ISSN 1040-6182.
  15. ^ a b "Most important archaeological site in New Zealand continues to lure researchers to Wairau Bar, Marlborough". Stuff. Retrieved 18 December 2018.
  16. ^ Holdaway, Richard N. (1999). "A spatio-temporal model for the invasion of the New Zealand archipelago by the Pacific ratRattus exulans". Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 29 (2): 91–105. Bibcode:1999JRSNZ..29...91H. doi:10.1080/03014223.1999.9517586. ISSN 0303-6758.
  17. ^ Sutton, DG; Flenley, JR; Li, X; Todd, A; Butler, K; Summers, R; Chester, PI (2008). "The timing of the human discovery and colonization of New Zealand". Quaternary International. 184 (1): 109–121. Bibcode:2008QuInt.184..109S. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2007.09.025.
  18. ^ Wilmshurstl, Janet M.; Higham, Thomas F.G. (1 September 2004). "Using rat-gnawed seeds to independently date the arrival of Pacific rats and humans in New Zealand". The Holocene. 14 (6): 801–806. Bibcode:2004Holoc..14..801W. doi:10.1191/0959683604hl760ft. ISSN 0959-6836. S2CID 128613605.
  19. ^ Worthy, Trevor H.; Higham, Thomas F. G.; Anderson, Atholl; Wilmshurst, Janet M. (3 June 2008). "Dating the late prehistoric dispersal of Polynesians to New Zealand using the commensal Pacific rat". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 (22): 7676–7680. Bibcode:2008PNAS..105.7676W. doi:10.1073/pnas.0801507105. ISSN 1091-6490. PMC 2409139. PMID 18523023.
  20. ^ Wilmshurst, Janet M.; Hunt, Terry L.; Lipo, Carl P.; Anderson, Atholl (1 February 2011). "High-precision radiocarbon dating shows recent and rapid initial human colonization of East Polynesia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 108 (5): 1815–1820. Bibcode:2011PNAS..108.1815W. doi:10.1073/pnas.1015876108. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3033267. PMID 21187404.
  21. ^ a b Newnham, Rewi; Lowe, David J; Gehrels, Maria; Augustinus, Paul (1 July 2018). "Two-step human–environmental impact history for northern New Zealand linked to late-Holocene climate change". The Holocene. 28 (7): 1093–1106. Bibcode:2018Holoc..28.1093N. doi:10.1177/0959683618761545. hdl:10289/11762. ISSN 0959-6836. S2CID 135346870.
  22. ^ a b Bunce, Michael; Beavan, Nancy R.; Oskam, Charlotte L.; Jacomb, Christopher; Allentoft, Morten E.; Holdaway, Richard N. (7 November 2014). "An extremely low-density human population exterminated New Zealand moa". Nature Communications. 5: 5436. Bibcode:2014NatCo...5.5436H. doi:10.1038/ncomms6436. ISSN 2041-1723. PMID 25378020.
  23. ^ Jacomb, Chris; Holdaway, Richard N.; Allentoft, Morten E.; Bunce, Michael; Oskam, Charlotte L.; Walter, Richard; Brooks, Emma (1 October 2014). "High-precision dating and ancient DNA profiling of moa (Aves: Dinornithiformes) eggshell documents a complex feature at Wairau Bar and refines the chronology of New Zealand settlement by Polynesians". Journal of Archaeological Science. 50: 24–30. Bibcode:2014JArSc..50...24J. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2014.05.023. ISSN 0305-4403.
  24. ^ Walter, R; Buckley, H; Jacomb, C; Matisoo-Smith, L (2017). "Mass Migration and the Polynesian Settlement of New Zealand". Journal of World Prehistory. 30 (4): 351. doi:10.1007/s10963-017-9110-y.
  25. ^ a b Taonga, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu. "1. – History – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand". teara.govt.nz. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
  26. ^ Pool, Ian (1 October 2013). Te Iwi Maori: Population Past, Present and Projected. Auckland University Press. ISBN 9781869406899.
  27. ^ Brewis, Alexandra A.; Molloy, Maureen A.; Sutton, Douglas G. (1990). "Modeling the prehistoric Maori population". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 81 (3): 343–356. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330810304. ISSN 1096-8644. PMID 2183629.
  28. ^ Walter, Richard; Buckley, Hallie; Jacomb, Chris; Matisoo-Smith, Elizabeth (2017). "Mass Migration and the Polynesian Settlement of New Zealand". Journal of World Prehistory. 30 (4): 351–376. doi:10.1007/s10963-017-9110-y. ISSN 0892-7537.
  29. ^ Penny, David; Hatfield, Peter J.; Scrimshaw, Brian J.; Murray-McIntosh, Rosalind P. (21 July 1998). "Testing migration patterns and estimating founding population size in Polynesia by using human mtDNA sequences". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 95 (15): 9047–9052. Bibcode:1998PNAS...95.9047M. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.15.9047. ISSN 1091-6490. PMC 21200. PMID 9671802.
  30. ^ a b Burtenshaw, M. K.; Harris, G. F.; Davidson, J.; Leach, F. (2003). "Experimental growing of pre-European cultivators of kumara (sweet potato, Ipomoea Batatas [L.] Lam) at the southern margins of Maori horticulture". New Zealand Journal of Archaeology. 23: 161–188.
  31. ^ Taonga, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu. "1. – Kūmara – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand". teara.govt.nz. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
  32. ^ Winkler, Stefan (2000). "The 'Little Ice Age' maximum in the Southern Alps, New Zealand: preliminary results at Mueller Glacier". The Holocene. 10 (5): 643–647. Bibcode:2000Holoc..10..643W. doi:10.1191/095968300666087656. S2CID 131695554.
  33. ^ "Census: 1871–1916". archive.stats.govt.nz. Archived from the original on 10 September 2019. Retrieved 20 December 2018.
  34. ^ a b c Anderson, Atholl (2016). "The making of the Maori middle ages". Journal of New Zealand Studies (23): 2. doi:10.26686/jnzs.v0i23.3987. Archived from the original on 24 March 2019. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
  35. ^ Leach, B. Foss (1981). "The prehistory of the Southern Wairarapa". Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 11 (1): 11–33. Bibcode:1981JRSNZ..11...11L. doi:10.1080/03036758.1981.10419449. ISSN 0303-6758.
  36. ^ Pearce, F. M.; Pearce, Charles E. M. (17 June 2010). Dating the Last Migration to New Zealand. Springer. ISBN 9789048138265.
  37. ^ Davis, Denise; Solomon, Māui (8 February 2005). "Moriori – Origins of the Moriori people". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 26 July 2023.
  38. ^ Marshall, Bruce; MacDonald, Judith; Fyfe, Roger; Findlater, Amy; Davidson, Janet (2011). "Connections with Hawaiki: the Evidence of a Shell Tool from Wairau Bar, Marlborough, New Zealand". Journal of Pacific Archaeology. 2 (2): 93–102. ISSN 1179-4712.
  39. ^ Bowron-Muth, Sreymony; Jacomb, Chris; Walter, Richard (2010). "Colonisation, mobility and exchange in New Zealand prehistory". Antiquity. 84 (324): 497–513. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00066734. ISSN 1745-1744. S2CID 162930918.
  40. ^ Goff, James R.; McFadgen, Bruce G. (2003). "Large earthquakes and the abandonment of prehistoric coastal settlements in 15th century New Zealand". Geoarchaeology. 18 (6): 609–623. Bibcode:2003Gearc..18..609G. doi:10.1002/gea.10082. ISSN 0883-6353. S2CID 129306879.
  41. ^ "Prehistoric settlement". Manaaki Whenua – Landcare Research. Archived from the original on 21 January 2020. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
  42. ^ Perry, George L. W.; Wilmshurst, Janet M.; McGlone, Matt S.; Napier, Aaron (2012). "Reconstructing spatial vulnerability to forest loss by fire in pre-historic New Zealand". Global Ecology and Biogeography. 21 (10): 1029–1041. Bibcode:2012GloEB..21.1029P. doi:10.1111/j.1466-8238.2011.00745.x. ISSN 1466-8238.
  43. ^ Jacomb, C.; Holdaway, R. N. (24 March 2000). "Rapid Extinction of the Moas (Aves: Dinornithiformes): Model, Test, and Implications". Science. 287 (5461): 2250–2254. Bibcode:2000Sci...287.2250H. doi:10.1126/science.287.5461.2250. ISSN 1095-9203. PMID 10731144.
  44. ^ "New Zealand Archaeology". Antiquity. 37 (145): 65–68. 1961. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00106155. ISSN 1745-1744. S2CID 246042742.
  45. ^ Ritchie, Neville A. (1991). "An Introduction to Historical Archaeology in New Zealand". Australian Journal of Historical Archaeology. 9: 3–5. JSTOR 29543280.
  46. ^ Smith, IAN W.G (1991). "The Development of Historical Archaeology in New Zealand 1921–1990". Australian Journal of Historical Archaeology. 9: 6–13. JSTOR 29543281.
  47. ^ Petchey, Peter (22 February 2015). "Evidence of the Working of Greenstone by Taranaki Maori Prisoners in the Dunedin Gaol". Journal of Pacific Archaeology. 6 (1): 70–79. ISSN 1179-4712.
  48. ^ Bedford, Stuart (1996). "Post-Contact Maori—The Ignored Component in New Zealand Archaeology". The Journal of the Polynesian Society. 105 (4): 411–439. JSTOR 20706681.
  49. ^ a b McLintock, Alexander Hare; Lawrence James Paul, B. SC; Taonga, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu. "ARCHAEOLOGY". An encyclopaedia of New Zealand, edited by A. H. McLintock, 1966. Retrieved 20 December 2018.
  50. ^ "About Us". NZ Archaeological Association. Retrieved 20 December 2018.
  51. ^ Jones, Ben (2017). "High Resolution LiDAR data for Landscape Archaeology in New Zealand". Archaeology in New Zealand. 60: 35–47.
  52. ^ Bickler and Low (2007). "Lies, damned lies and geophysics": Uses and abuses of remote sensing techniques in New Zealand heritage management". Archaeol. NZ (50): 195–210.
  53. ^ "About the Register". Heritage New Zealand. Retrieved 19 November 2018.
  54. ^ Morton, Jamie (19 February 2013). "Rock art needs protection: expert". NZ Herald. ISSN 1170-0777. Retrieved 18 December 2018.
  55. ^ Tiffany, James-Lee; Ian, Smith (2010). "Data for an Archaeozoological Analysis of Marine Resource Use in Two New Zealand Study Areas (Revised edition)". Department of Anthropology & Archaeology; University of Otago.
  56. ^ "Huriawa Peninsula". New Zealand Heritage List/Rārangi Kōrero. Heritage New Zealand.
  57. ^ Hamilton, H. (1925). "The Kaingaroa Carvings". The Journal of the Polynesian Society. 34 (4(136)): 356–362. JSTOR 20702052.
  58. ^ Davidson, Janet (1978). "The Prehistory of Motutapu Island, New Zealand Five Centuries of Polynesian Occupation in a Changing Landscape". The Journal of the Polynesian Society. 87 (4): 327–337. JSTOR 20705369.
  59. ^ "Rock art exposure in South Canterbury". sites.rootsweb.com. Retrieved 21 December 2018.
  60. ^ "Search the List | Opihi Rock Art | Heritage New Zealand". www.heritage.org.nz. Retrieved 22 December 2018.
  61. ^ Scarlett, R. J. (1974). "Moa and man in New Zealand" (PDF). Notornis. 21: 1–12. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 February 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2018.
  62. ^ Anderson, Atholl; Smith, Ian (1992). "The Papatowai Site: New Evidence and Interpretations". The Journal of the Polynesian Society. 101 (2): 129–158. JSTOR 20706442.
  63. ^ Petchey, Fiona; Higham, Thomas (1 February 2000). "Bone Diagenesis and Radiocarbon Dating of Fish Bones at the Shag River Mouth Site, New Zealand". Journal of Archaeological Science. 27 (2): 135–150. Bibcode:2000JArSc..27..135P. doi:10.1006/jasc.1999.0446. ISSN 0305-4403.
  64. ^ Higham, T.F.G; Horn, P.L (1 May 2000). "Seasonal Dating Using Fish Otoliths: Results from the Shag River Mouth Site, New Zealand". Journal of Archaeological Science. 27 (5): 439–448. Bibcode:2000JArSc..27..439H. doi:10.1006/jasc.1999.0473. ISSN 0305-4403.
  65. ^ Best, Elsdon (1927). The pa maori: an account of the fortified villages of the Maori in pre-European and modern times; illustrating methods of defence by means of ramparts, fosses, scraps and stockades. Printed by Whitcombe and Tombs.
  66. ^ Brooks, Emma; Walter, Richard; Jacomb, Chris (2011). "History of Excavations at Wairau Bar". Records of the Canterbury Museum. 25: 13–58 – via Researchgate.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Archaeology_of_New_Zealand&oldid=1258086435"