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Political marriages in India

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Political marriages in India have occurred throughout history.

Classical period

Mauryan Empire

According to Appian, Seleucus I Nicator, one of Alexander's Macedonian generals who established the Seleucid Empire in 312 BCE with its capital at Babylon, brought Persia and Bactria under his authority, putting his eastern front facing the empire of Chandragupta.[1] Seleucus and Chandragupta waged war until they reached an understanding. Seleucus married off his daughter, Berenice, to Chandragupta to forge an alliance.[2]

Alain Daniélou and D. D. Kosambi note that Seleucus appeared to have fared poorly after ceding large territories west of the Indus to Chandragupta. The Maurya Empire added Arachosia (Kandahar), Gedrosia (Balochistan), Aria (Herat), and Paropamisadae (Kabul).[3][4] According to Strabo, Seleucus Nicator gave these regions to Chandragupta along with a marriage treaty, and in return received five hundred elephants.[5] The details of the engagement treaty are not known.[6] However, since the extensive sources available on Seleucus never mention an Indian princess, it is thought that the marital alliance went the other way, with Chandragupta himself or his son Bindusara marrying a Seleucid princess, in accordance with contemporary Greek practices to form dynastic alliances. An Indian Puranic source, Pratisarga Parva of the Bhavishya Purana, described the marriage of Chandragupta with a Greek ("Yavana") princess, daughter of Seleucus.[7] The Mahavamsa also states that, seven months after the war ended, Seleucus gave one of his daughters, Berenice (known in Pali as Suvarnnaksi), in marriage to Chandragupta.[8]

Chandragupta sent 500 war elephants to Seleucus, which played a key role in Seleucus' victory at the Battle of Ipsus.[9][10][11] In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched Megasthenes as an ambassador to Chandragupta's court, and later Antiochos sent Deimakos to his son Bindusara at the Maurya court in Patna.[1]

Gupta Empire

Chandragupta I married the Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi. The Licchavi were an ancient clan headquartered at Vaishali in present-day Bihar during the time of Gautama Buddha. A Lichchhavi kingdom existed in present-day Nepal in the first millennium CE. However, the identity of Kumaradevi's Lichchhavi kingdom is not certain.[12]: 12 

Samudragupta's inscription mentions that several kings tried to please him by attending to him personally; offering him their daughters in marriage (or, according to another interpretation, gifting him maidens[13]: 125 ); and seeking the use of the Garuda-depicting Gupta seal for administering their own territories.[14]: 168  These kings included "Daivaputra-Shahi-Shahanushahi, Shaka-Murundas, and the rulers of the island countries such as Simhala".[15]: 343 [16]: 77–78 

Chandragupta II married Kuvera-naga (alias Kuberanaga), whose name indicates that she was a princess of the Naga dynasty, which held considerable power in central India before Samudragupta subjugated them. This matrimonial alliance may have helped Chandragupta consolidate the Gupta empire, and the Nagas may have helped him in his war against the Western Kshatrapas.[12]: 60 

Kumaragupta I was married to Anantadevi. According to historian R. N. Dandekar, Anantadevi was a Kadamba princess. The Talagunda pillar inscription suggests that the Kadamba king, Kakusthavarman established a matrimonial alliance with the Guptas.[16]: 174 

Satavahana dynasty

Simuka, in order to overthrow the Kanvas, forged an alliance with Ambhiya chief Tranakayiro Kalalaya, by marrying his son, Satakarni, to Tranakayira's daughter Nayanika. This paved the way for the foundation of Satavahana rule over most of Southern India.[17]

In an effort to end the hostilities with the Western Satraps, Vashishtiputra Satakarni, the younger son of Gautamiputra Satakarni, married the daughter of Rudradaman I. The region of Aparanta was conceded by Rudradaman to Vashishtiputra Satakarni as dowry. Despite their marital ties, at least two wars occurred between them, during which the Satavahanas were defeated. Rudradaman, however, spared the life of Vashishtiputra Satakarni, primarily because of their familial relationship.[18][19][20]: 172–176 

Vakataka dynasty

Rudrasena II, the ruler of the Pravarapura-Nandivardhana branch of the Vakataka dynasty, married Prabhavatigupta, the daughter of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II.[21]: 91 

Narendrasena of the Vakataka dynasty was married to a "daughter of a king of Kuntala" named Ajjhitabhattarika. She is purported to be the daughter of the Kadamba king Kakusthavarman, who is known to have married off his daughters to several prominent royal families.[22][23]: 106 

Madhava Varma II of the Vishnukundina dynasty married the daughter of Prithivishena II after subduing him.[24]

Medieval period

Rashtrakuta dynasty

The Rashtrakuta ruler, Amoghavarsha I got his daughter Chandrabbalabbe married to Ganga dynasty prince Butuga I. This marriage sealed the alliance between the Ganga dynasty and the Rashtrakutas.[25]: 119 

Amoghavarsha III was married to a Kalachuri princess named Kundakadevi. He also had a daughter named Revakanimmadi married to Western Ganga King Butuga II.[26][27]: 44 

Chalukya dynasty

Chalukya ruler Kirtivarman II was married to a sister of the Sendraka king Shri-vallabha Senanada, who swore allegiance to the Chalukyas after Kirttivarman's conquest of the Kadamba kingdom.[28]: 41 

Pulakeshin married the daughter of the Ganga ruler Durvinita,[28]: 76  she became the mother of Pulakeshin's son Vikramaditya I.[28]: 77  In return Shilabhattarika, a daughter of Pulakeshin II was married to Dadiga, a grandson of Durvinita.[28]: 77 [29] Pulakeshin II also married an Alupa princess named Kadamba Devi after subduing them.[30] : 112 

Chalukyas of Vatapi

The Chalukya ruler Vikramaditya I, entered into a marital alliance with the Western Ganga dynasty by marrying Gangamahadevi.[31]: 242 

Vijayaditya I's son Vishnuvardhana IV was forced to sue for peace by marrying his daughter Silamahadevi to the Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruva Dharavarsha.[32]: 395 

Western Chalukyas

Ayyana I, was married to the daughter of Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna II. This marriage raised the Chalukya family's political status.[33] Ayyana I's descendant Vikramaditya IV, married Bontha Devi, a daughter of the Kalachuri king Lakshmana-raja[34] Tailapa II married Rashtrakuta princess Jakavve, the daughter of Bhammaha Ratta, possibly to strengthen his political position.[35]: 229 [27]: 100–101 

Bhillama III, a vassal king of the Yadava dynasty of Devagiri rebelled against Jayasimha II, Jayasimha successfully dealt with the rebellion and managed to recover all of his lost territories by 1024 c. Bhillama III later married Avalladevi, the daughter of Jayasimha II as an act of peace.[36]: 383 [37]: 102 

Vikramaditya VI married one of Virarajendra Chola's daughters , establishing a temporary truce between the two kingdoms.[38]: 171–172  He also dealt with revolting Kadamba feudatory by marrying off his daughter Maila Devi to the Kadamba King Jayakeshi II.[27]: 105 

Pratiharas of Mandore

Kakka, the Pratihara ruler of Mandore is said to have married Rani Padmini of the Bhati clan, which is considered by some to be identical with Bhatis of Jaisalmer.[39]: 81 

Pala dynasty

The second ruler of the Pala dynasty of Bengal region Dharmapala was married to a princess Kamadevi of the Rashtrakuta empire.[40]

Vigrahapala III son of Nayapala and ruler of the Pala dynasty of Bengal region was succeed to receive princess Yauvanasri in marriage, a daughter of Lakshmi Karna ruler of Kalachuri dynasty of Tripuri after a defeat by Vigrahapala III to her father in a battle.[41]

Utpala dynasty

Queen Sugandha daughter of Svamiraja a Darad Hindu ruler of a kingdom near Kashmir. She was married to the second ruler of the Utpala dynasty Raja Shankaravarman and gave birth to Gopalavarman.[42][43]

Princess Didda daughter of Simharāja, the king of Utpala dynasty was married to Kshemagupta ruler of the Lohara dynasty of Kashmir.[44]

Yadava dynasty

Yadava ruler Vaddiga I was married to Vaddiyavve or Vohivayya, daughter of Rashtrakuta chieftain Dhorappa who was a younger brother of the Rashtrakuta emperor Krishna III. His descendant Bhillama II married Lachchiyavve, a Rashtrakuta princess. The wives of Vesugi and Bhillama III were Chalukya princesess.[27]: 136–137 [35]: 517 

Chahamanas

According to their inscriptions, Chahamanas have been noted to have a distinct preference for Rastrakutas or Ratraudhas. Tribhuvanesvara of the Chahamana family has been mentioned as having married Laksmidevi of the Rastrakuta lineage. Alhanadeva was also married to Annalladevi of the Rastrakuta family. Dharavarsa, a member of the Paramara dynasty also married the daughter of Chahamana ruler Kelhanadeva. Satyaraja belonging to the Paramara family of Vagada was married to Rajsri of the Chahamana family.[39] : 81 

According to Kanhadade Prabandha written in the 15th century by Padmanābha, Piroja, the daughter of Alauddin Khalji, fell in love with Viramadeva Songira of Jalore. Alauddin proposed to marry her to Viramadeva, but Viramadeva rejected the offer, triggering Alauddin's invasion of Jalore.[45]: 124–125 

Guhila dynasty

The Guhilas contracted marital relations with Rajput clans such as Caulukyas, the Paramaras, the Rastrakutas, the Cahamanas and the Hunas.[39] : 81 

Rawal Bharttripatta II married a Rashtrakuta princess named Mahalakshmi to forge an alliance against the Pratiharas .[46]: 50  His son, Rawal Allata entered into a matrimonial alliance with Hunas by marrying a Huna princess Hariyadevi.[46]: 52  Naravāhana , the son of Allata was married to princess Jejaya of the Chahamana family.[46]: 55 

Vijayasimha got his daughter Syamaladevi married to the Parmara ruler Udayaditya, which ended the traditional animosity between the two houses.[47]: 528  Vijayasimha's daughter Alhaṇadevi later married the Kalachuri king Gayakarna.[48]: 495 

Tejasimha was married to a Songira princess named Rupadevi. Songira records also maintain an account of Subali, a Guhila princess being married to a Songira chief named Rao Samantsimha. This was in contravention to the rigid clan hierarchy and the concept of hypergamy among the Rajputs.[49]: 63 

Tomaras of Gwalior

The Gujari Mahal located in Hisar, Haryana still hums the immortal love story of Tomara emperor Man Singh Tomar and his lover, a Mirgnyani Gujjari lady.[50] The Man Singh Tomar built Gujjari Mahal in 1354.[51]

Khilji dynasty

In 1297 Sultan Alauddin Khalji defeated the Karna II, last Baghela Rajput chief of the Vaghela dynasty of Gujarat expanded his own (Khalji dynasty). He then married to Baghela Rajput princess Kamala Devi, the former wife of king Karanadeva and she became favourite wife of the Khilji.[52][53][53]

After Alauddin's conquest of Devagiri in (1296 or 1304), Ramachandra chief of the Yadava dynasty got his daughter Jhatyapali Yadava married to Alauddin Khalji. She later became the mother of Alauddin's son and successor Shihab-ud-din Omar.[54]: 56–57 

In 1315, Sultan Khizar Khan, the ruler of Khalji dynasty and eldest son of the Alauddin Khalji was married to a Hindu Baghela Rajput princess named Dawal Rani. She was the daughter of the Karna II, ruler of the Vaghela dynasty of Gujarat.[53][55]

Tughlaq dynasty

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq (Ghazi Malik) the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty was married to a Jat woman.[56]

Sipasalar Rajab Tughlaq (Malik Rajab Turk) the younger brother of Sultan Ghiyazudin Tughlaq and ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty was married to a Hindu Rajput princess of the Bhati clan named Naila. Naila was the Daughter of a Rajput chief Raja Ran Mal (Rana Mall) Bhati of Abohar, Punjab.[57][58]

Bahmani kingdom

Alau'd-din Ahmad Shah, the first ruler of the Bahmani kingdom, married the daughter of Sultan Nadir Khan of the Farooqi dynasty. He also married the ruler of Sangameshwar's daughter.[59]

In 1406, Firuz Shah Bahmani, the Muslim ruler of the Bahmani kingdom, was married to the daughter of the Hindu King, Deva Raya II of the Vijaynagar Empire.[60] Firuz Shah also married his son to a woman, whom the Ruler of Vijayanagara had also desired to marry. Bahmanis also prevented women of their clan from marrying beyond their own rank, with some of them being married off to the saintly Ni'mat Allahi family of Bidar.[59]

Jaunpur Sultanate

Mahmud Shah Sharqi, the ruler of Jaunpur Sultanate and son of Ibrahim Shah Sharqi was married to a princess named Bibi Raji. She was the daughter of Sultan Alam shah, the last ruler of the Sayyid dynasty.[61][62]

Bijapur kingdom

Yusuf Adil Shah, the founder of the Bijapur sultanate was married to a Hindu Maratha princess. She was the daughter of Raja Mukund Rao, the ruler of Idar. After the marriage, Adilshah gave her a new name Bibi Khanam and made her chief queen.[63][64]

Muzaffarid dynasty

Muzaffar Shah I (Zafar Khan) ruler of the Muzaffarid dynasty gave his daughter in marriage to Firzoz shah Tughlaq ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty. Later he was appointed as governor of the Gujarat with the title "Muzaffar Khan" by Firoz Shah Tughlaq in 1391 CE.[65]

Muzaffar Shah II was married to three Hindu Rajput princesses: Rajbai, Bibi Rani, and Laximi Bai.[66] Rajbai was the daughter of Rana Mahipat. Laximi Bai was the daughter of a chief of Gohil Rajputs and was the mother of Qutb-ud-Din Bahadur Shah.[67][68] Bibi Rani, the chief queen of Muzaffar Shah, was the mother of Sikander Khan. She was the daughter of a Rajput of the suryavansa family.[69]

Maldeo, the Rajput ruler of Rathore dynasty of Marwar gave his two daughters in marriage to the Muslim rulers of the Muzaffarid dynasty of Gujarat. Queen Kankavati Rathore was married to Mahmud Shah III and the second daughter of Maldev Rathore was married to Islam Shah of Gujarat.[70]

Early modern period

Gond Kingdom

Dalpat Shah ruler of the Gond kingdom of the Garha Mandal region and son of the Sangram Shah was married to Chandel Rajput princess Rani Durgavati by after a defeat to her father in a fight. She was the daughter of the Chandel Rajput chief Shalbaham of the Chandela dynasty of Mahoba region. She gave birth to Bir Narayan and after Dalpat Shah's death she became the queen regent of her son when he was just three years old.[71][72]

Mughals

Akbar was selective about Muslim royal families he chose to accept as a subordinate ally through acceptance of their daughters as brides.[73]: 89  Political marriages were also noted to be unsuccessful at ending enmity, for example despite the marriage of Miran Mubarak Shah II's daughter to Akbar in 1564. Khandesh sultanate periodically fought wars with the Mughals.[73]: 90–91  In 1561, Akbar married his sister to Mirza Sharaf-ud-din Husain, a Timurid noble who later conspired against him.[73]: 91  Mirza Muzaffar Husain Khan, the former ruler of Gujarat was also noted to have married one of Akbar's daughters. Akbar also gave his daughter to Mirza Shahrukh, the disposed ruler of Badakhshan and another one to his brother-in-law Raja Ali Khan of Khandesh.[73]: 91  According to a legend, Tansen, the court musician and one of Akbar's Navaratnas married Mehrunissa, one of Akbar's daughters.[74][75]

Rajput women could be incorporated into Mughal Harem and this defined the Mughals as overlords over the Rajput clans. The Sisodia clan of Mewar was an exception as they refused to send their women to the Mughal Harem which resulted in siege and mass suicide at Chittor.[76]

Although Rajput rulers provided the brides to the Mughals, neither Akbar nor his successors provided brides to the Rajputs. For example, Akbar got this sisters and daughters married to Timurids and prominent Muslims from central and west Asia.[73]

Sisodias

According to bardic legends, Hammir Singh (1302–1364) is also said to have married a Songira princess named Songari Devi of Jalore.[49]: 63–64 

Rao Mandalika III(1451 CE to 1472 CE) of Junagadh was married to Sisodia princess Ramavati ,who was Rana Kumbha's daughter. The Guhilas maintained and reinforced their social ties with the Rajput rulers of Gujarat until the end of the fifteenth century.[49]: 63–64 

Narain Das, the Raja of Bundi fought alongside Rana Raimal during his campaign against the sultan of Malwa. Raimal was impressed by Das's valour and got one of his nieces married to him.[77]: 513 

The Decline of the Mughal Empire in the eighteenth century was marked by the onset of Rajput rebellions across the empire. In this struggle for dominance, the Ranas of Mewar were able to take advantage of Mewar's history of resistance against the Mughals, exemplified by their refusal to enter any matrimonial alliance with them. Ranas of Mewar were also able to highlight their role as the defender of Rajput honor.[49] : 83 

Rathores

In 1395, Rao Chunda was approached by the Pratihars of Mandore, who proposed an alliance against the Tughlaq Empire. Chunda agreed and was married to a Pratihar princess. It was common practice to include villages and land in a Rajput princess's dowry,[49]: 154  as exemplified by Rao Chunda who received the fortified city of Mandore and a thousand villages in dowry.[78][77]: 379–80  his daughter, Hansa-bai, was later married to Rana Lakha of Mewar.[77]: 335 

Rao Ranmal married multiple times, as was common among the Rajput elite.[77]: 380  He is known to have married Kodamde Bhatiyani, daughter of Ranigde, Rao of Pugal ,Bharmali, daughter of Chacha, son of Kshetra Singh, Rana of Mewar[77]: 337  and Rami Bai, daughter of Lalaji Songira of Nadol[79]

In 1438, Ranmal was assassinated on the orders of Rana Kumbha, this led to a period of hostility between the two houses. Eventually , peace was established after a marriage between Rao Jodha's daughter Shringar Devi and Rana Kumbha's son, Raimal.[77]: 382 

Rao Bika, the eponymous founder of the kingdom of Bikaner was married to Bhatiyani Rani Rang Kanwar, the daughter of Rao Shekha, the Bhati ruler of Pugal.[80]

In 1496, Maharana Rinmala married one of his daughters to the crown prince of Merta, Viramdev, who was a son of Rao Duda.[49]: 63  In 1537, Maldeo Rathore besieged Jaisalmer . Rawal Lunkaran was forced to sue for peace by marrying his daughter Umade Bhattiyani to Rathore.[81][49]: 24 

In 1562, Akbar married the granddaughter of Rao Viramdev of Merta[82] On 15 November 1570, Rai Kalyan Singh got his daughter , Raj Kanwar married to Akbar.[83][84] In 1570, Akbar married Bhanumati, another niece of Rai Kalyan Singh of Bikaner[83] In 1570, Puram Bai, a great-granddaughter of Rao Viramdev was married to Akbar.[85][86] Akbar also married Rukmavati, daughter of Rao Maldeo through one of his concubines.[77]: 553 [87] On 11 January 1586, the marriage of Prince Salim (Jahangir) to Princess Manavati Bai, the daughter of Mota Raja Udai Singh took place.[88] Prince Salim married Karamsi, daughter of Kesho Das. (Rathore-Bikaner)[89]

In April 1624, the marriage of Prince Parvez to Princess Manbhavati Bai, the sister of Maharaja Gaj Singh Rathore of Marwar took place.[90][91] Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan) married Lilavati Bai, daughter of Sakat Singh of |Marwar[92] In 1649, Mughal Emperor Shahjahan resolved the enmity between Rao Amar Singh and Maharaja Jaswant Singh by ordering the marriage of Jasiangde to Maharaja Jaswant Singh.[49]: 54 

In 1654, the marriage of the daughter of Rao Amar Singh to Prince Suleiman Shikoh[93][94] In 1671, marriage between Mohammaduazzam (Bahadur Shah I) to Princess Amrita Bai, the daughter of Maharaja Roop Singh Rathore of Kishangarh took place .[95]

On 27 September 1715, Farrukhsiyar married the daughter of Maharaja Ajit Singh, Princess Indira Kanwar[96] In 1718, Ajit Singh of Marwar got his daughter married to the Raja of Jaipur, Sawai Jai Singh to garner his support in favour of Sayyid brothers in the Mughal court. Also in that same year, Sawai Jai Singh seeking to increase his influence in the Marwar 's court got his daughter married to the son of Maharaja Ajit Singh, Abhai Singh.[49]: 67  In 1729 Abhai Singh, the Rana of Marwar, subjugated various local chiefs. The prince of Sirohi chose to offer his daughter in marriage instead of resisting Abhai Singh. The practice of offering a daughter to resolve hostility was intended to secure peace and protect against potential attacks.[49]: 51 [97][98]

Kachwahas

In February 1562, Raja Bharmal, of Amer, and an early member of Akbar's court, allied with Akbar by marrying his daughter, Mariam-uz-Zamani to him.[99]: 243 [100] During Akbar's reign, the incentive of marriage came from the Mughal side, Surjan Hada is known to have joined the alliance on the condition that Akbar would not marry any of his daughters, as such no marriage took place.[99] However, not all Rajputs accepted the offer to enter an alliance with Akbar. Both Rao Chandrasen of Jodhpur and Rana Pratap Singh of Mewar refused to bow down to the emperor. Their resistance is attributed to their desire to remain independent, and in Rana Pratap's case, to his refusal to suffer the humiliation of sending a daughter to the imperial harem.[99] The scale of Rajput-Mughal marriages peaked during Akbar's reign. However, Akbar's successors abandoned the use of extensive matrimonial alliances, diminishing its political significance.[49]: 81–83 

Man Singh I's brother Chandrabhan Kachwaha was married to the daughter of Raja Puranmal of Gidhaur whose fort was easily conquered by the Kachwaha army.[101]: 77 

Prince Salim's first and chief consort was the Kachwaha Rajput princess, daughter of Raja Bhagwant Das of the Kingdom of Amber Kunwari Manbhawat Deiji entitled Shah Begum, to whom he was betrothed in 16th year of his life.[102][49]: 81 [103]

On 5 July 1678, Azim-ush-Shan was married to Bai Jas Kaur, Kirat Singh's daughter, the son of Raja Jai Singh[104]

On 30 July 1681, Aurangzeb's son Kaam Baksh was married to Amarchand's daughter Kalyan Kumari of Manoharpur.[105]

A Mewari painting of Ajit Singh, Amar Singh II, Maharaja Jai Singh II and Durgadas Rathore

During the Rajput rebellion of 1708, Sawai Jai Singh II re-established marital alliances with the state of Mewar after a period of 150 years by marrying the daughter of Maharana Amar Singh II. He also married the daughter of Maharaja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur in an effort to reclaim their lost territories and forge a unified coalition against Aurangzeb's successor Bahadur Shah.[49]: 67 : 83 

Bhatis

Udai Singh II was married to Dheer Bai Bhattiyani , a sister of Umade Bhattiyani.[77]: 462 According to an inscription from 1324 AD, Kshemasimha had his daughter Dulha Devi married to King Karna Deva of Jaisalmer.[77]: 372 

Many Rajput clans converted to Islam over time, however their lifestyle did not differ greatly from their Hindu counterparts. There have been many instances of intermarriages between Muslim and Hindu Rajputs for political reasons. For example, the marriage of the daughter of Ismail Khan , the ruler of Sind to Rao Kalan of Jaisalmer for consolidating his kingdom. Another instance can be seen in Chachi deo's (1448–62) marriage to the granddaughter of Mohammad Shoomar Khan.[49]: 77–78 

Baloch chief Jam Ismail Khan submitted to Kelana, the ruler of Bhati Kingdom of Pugal by marrying off his daughter Zubeida as a part of the peace settlement.[49]: 77 

In 1570, Maharawal Harraj Singh got his daughter Princess Nathi Bai married to Akbar [106][77][107] In 1587, Prince Salim married, Malika Jahan, daughter of Maharawal Bhim Singh of Jaisalmer.[108]

Panna state

Maharaja Chhatrasal, the Bundela Rajput king of Panna State had a Muslim concubine named Ruhaani Bai.[109] Mastani, the daughter from this union was married to Bajirao I (Visaji Bhatt) peshwa of the Maratha confederacy.[110][111]

Kolhapur state

Sambhaji II, the second Maratha ruler of the Kolhapur State married a Rajput princess of Ramnagar after becoming Chhatrapati at Poona.[112]

Jats

The son of a Jat leader Gokula was converted to Islam and renamed as Fadil. Gokula's daughter also converted to Islam and married Mughal Nawab Shah Quli.[113]

Modern period

Bijawar state

Bijawar's Maharaja Sawant Singh was a Bundela Rajput adopted from the house of Orchha State. He married a woman of the Ahir caste who gave birth to his son Aman Singh in 1911. Aman Singh was denied inheritance by the authorities on a belief that his succession would be "greatly resented by rulers not merely in Bundelkhand but in Rajputana and Kathiawar, where Bundela Rajput rulers have in recent years contracted marriages."[114]: 61 

Kapurthala state

The Daughter of Jagatjit Singh of the Kapurthala State, Amrit Kaur was married to a Rajput Joginder Sen of the Rajput princely state of Mandi.[115][116]

In 1928, Sita Devi, a Hindu Rajput princess belonging to Kashipur princely state in Punjab was married to Maharaja Kamarjit Singh, a Ahluwalia Sikh ruler and son of the Maharaja Jagajit of the Kapurthala princely state in Punjab. She was the daughter of Udai Raj Singh I ruler of Kashipur state.[117][118][119]

Gwalior State

In 1913, Indira Devi ,the daughter of Sayajirao Gaekwad III eloped and later married with Jitendra Narayan of Cooch Behar state, despite much opposition by her parents. [114]: 99  Vijaya Raje Scindia, a Rajput princess of the Rana dynasty of Nepal was married to Jiwajirao Scindia, the last Maratha ruler of the Gwalior state. She was the only non Maratha women who married into the Scindia royal family in last two hundred years.[120]

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  16. ^ a b Tej Ram Sharma (1978). Personal and Geographical Names in the Gupta Inscriptions. Concept. p. 258. OCLC 249004782.
  17. ^ Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya (1974). Some Early Dynasties of South India. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 37. ISBN 978-81-208-2941-1.
  18. ^ Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. p. 381. ISBN 9788131716779.
  19. ^ Sircar, Dineschandra (1971). Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 228. ISBN 9788120806900.
  20. ^ Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. ISBN 9788122411980.
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  34. ^ Gopal, B. R. (1971). Bādāmiya cālukyaru (in Kannada) (1 ed.). Bangalore: Aibiec Prakāśana. pp. 49–54. OCLC 500113397.
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  37. ^ Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001) [1980]. A concise history of Karnataka : from pre-historic times to the present. Bangalore: Jupiter books. LCCN 80905179. OCLC 7796041.
  38. ^ Sastri, Nilakanta K.A. (2002) [1955]. A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar. New Delhi: Indian Branch, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-560686-8.
  39. ^ a b c Chattopadhyaya, Brajadulal (2012-10-11). The Making of Early Medieval India, Second Edition. New Delhi: OUP India. ISBN 978-0-19-807725-1.
  40. ^ Krishnamachariar, Madabhushi; Srinivasachariar, M. (1989). History of Classical Sanskrit Literature: Being an Elaborate Account of All Branches of Classical Sanskrit Literature, with Full Epigraphical and Archaeological Notes and References, an Introduction Dealing with Language, Philology, and Chronology, and Index of Authors & Works. Motilal Banarsidass Publishe. p. 162. ISBN 978-81-208-0284-1.
  41. ^ Majumdar, Asoke Kumar (1956). Chaulukyas of Gujarat: A Survey of the History and Culture of Gujarat from the Middle of the Tenth to the End of the Thirteenth Century. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 361. From Ramacharita (I, v. 9 and commentary) we learn that Nayapala's son and successor Vigrahapala III defeated Lakshmi-Karņa and married his daughter Yauvanaśri.
  42. ^ Kapur, Manohar Lal (1975). Eminent Rulers of Ancient Kashmir: A Detailed History of the Life and Rule of Ten Kings and Queens of Ancient Kashmir. Oriental Publishers & Distributors. p. 62.
  43. ^ Jan, Changez (2022-07-18). Forgotten Kings: The Story of the Hindu Sahi Dynasty. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-93-92099-01-4. Avantivarman had a son called Sankaravarman, whose marriage he arranged to Sugandha, the daughter of Svamiraja, king of the North, possibly a Darad, the natural rivals of the Hindu Sahis.
  44. ^ Kalhaṇa (1989). Kalhana's Rajatarangini: A Chronicle of the Kings of Kashmir. Motilal Banarsidass Publishing House. p. 293. ISBN 978-81-208-0368-8.
  45. ^ Romila Thapar (2005). Somanatha: The Many Voices of a History. Verso. ISBN 978-1-84467-020-8.
  46. ^ a b c Somani, Ram Vallabh (1976). History of Mewar, from Earliest Times to 1751 A.D. Mateshwari. OCLC 2929852.
  47. ^ A Comprehensive History of India A.D. 985–1206. Indian History Congress. 1992. ISBN 978-81-7007-121-1.
  48. ^ V. V. Mirashi (1957). "The Kalacuris". In R. S. Sharma (ed.). A Comprehensive history of India: A.D. 985–1206. Vol. 4 (Part 1). Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House. ISBN 978-81-7007-121-1.
  49. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Singh, Sabita (2019). The Politics of Marriage in India: Gender and Alliance in Rajasthan. OUP India. ISBN 9780199098286.
  50. ^ Saran, Renu (2014-08-19). Monuments of India. Diamond Pocket Books Pvt Ltd. ISBN 978-93-5165-298-4.
  51. ^ Museum, Gwalior; Kacker, Loveleen; Misra, Om Prakash (1997). Heritage of Madhya Pradesh: Treasures of Central Archaeological Museum, Gujari Mahal, Gwalior. Madhya Pradesh Madhyam.
  52. ^ Akbar, M. J. (2018-02-08). India: The Siege Within. Roli Books Private Limited. ISBN 978-81-936009-7-9. He quickly expanded his empire; by 1297 the Baghela Rajput prince of Gujarat, Rai Karnadeva II, was defeated and his wife Kamala Devi later became the favourite wife of Khilji.
  53. ^ a b c Mohamed, Malik (2023-12-01). The Foundations of the Composite Culture in India. Taylor & Francis. p. 299. ISBN 978-1-003-83095-5. Ala ud - Din married Kamla Devi of Gujarat and princess Jhitai , daughter of Ram Deo of Deogger. Prince Khizar Khan was publicly married to Dawal Rani , a Rajput Princess in 1315.
  54. ^ Kishori Saran Lal (1950). History of the Khaljis (1290–1320). Allahabad: The Indian Press. OCLC 685167335.
  55. ^ Das, Debesh (1970). The Vanishing Maharajas. S. Chand. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-8426-0092-7. The contemporary poet Amir Khusru also has made but a passing reference to the conquest of Chitor, even though he has produced a beautiful book of lyrics round the love story of prince Khizar Khan and the Rajput princess Devala Devi.
  56. ^ Chaudhry, Shruti (2021-10-01). Moving for Marriage: Inequalities, Intimacy, and Women's Lives in Rural North India. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-1-4384-8559-1.
  57. ^ Ahmad, Manazir (1978). Sultan Firoz Shah Tughlaq, 1351-1388 A.D. Chugh Publications. These were Qaraunah Turks, popularly known as Tughlaq. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq was the founder of this dynasty. Rajab was known as sipasalar Nasiruddin Rajab, was an impressive personality in the court of Allauddin. He was married to the daughter of Rajput Raja Ran Mal Bhatti.
  58. ^ Phadke, H. A. (1990). Haryana, Ancient and Medieval. Harman Publishing House. p. 118. ISBN 978-81-85151-34-2. Firuz Tughlaq, Ghiyasuddin's nephew, born of a Bhatti Rajput mother (the daughter of Ran Mal of Abohar) was proclaimed the successor to the throne on March 24, 1351 at Thatta.
  59. ^ a b Eaton, R.M. (2005). A Social History of the Deccan, 1300-1761: Eight Indian Lives. Cambridge University Press. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-521-25484-7. Retrieved 2024-11-05.
  60. ^ Chandra, Satish (2005). Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals Part - II. Har-Anand Publications. p. 112. ISBN 978-81-241-1066-9. Firuz Shah Bahmani married the daughter of Deo Ray of Vijaynagar in 1406, the marriage being celebrated in a grand manner.
  61. ^ Mehta, Jl. Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 89. ISBN 978-81-207-1015-3.
  62. ^ Pande, Rekha (1990). Succession in the Delhi Sultanate. Commonwealth Publishers. p. 171. ISBN 978-81-7169-069-5.
  63. ^ Eraly, Abraham (2000). Emperors of the Peacock Throne: The Saga of the Great Mughals. Penguin Books India. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-14-100143-2. In the Deccan, Deo Raj of Vijayanagar had married a daughter to Firuz Shah Bahmini, and Mukund Rao Maratha, the Raja of Idar, had given his sister in marriage to Yusuf Adil Shah, the first Sultan of Bijapur.
  64. ^ Gopal, Ram (1994). Hindu Culture During and After Muslim Rule: Survival and Subsequent Challenges. M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd. p. 45. ISBN 978-81-85880-26-6. The Sultans of Deccan married Maratha girls. Yusuf Adilshah, the founder of Bijapur kingdom, had married a Maratha girl whom he named as Bibi - Khanam and made her chief queen.
  65. ^ Indian History. Allied Publishers. 1988. pp. B_131. ISBN 978-81-8424-568-4. Gujarat: The independent kingdom of Gujarat was founded by Zafar Khan, son of Sadharan, a Jat convert to Islam. Sadharan's sister was married to Firuz Tughluq. Zafar Khan was appointed gover- nor of Gujarat in 1391, with the title Muzaffar Khan.
  66. ^ Mohamed, Malik (2023-12-01). The Foundations of the Composite Culture in India. Taylor & Francis. p. 299. ISBN 978-1-003-83095-5. Sultan Muzaffar Shah II too married three Rajput princesses - Rajbai, the daughter of Rana Mahipat, Laxmibai, daughter of Gohal Rajput and Bibi Rani of suryavansa Rajput family.
  67. ^ Chaube, J. (1975). History of Gujarat Kingdom, 1458-1537. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. p. 154. ISBN 978-0-88386-573-6. LAKHAM (Lakshmi Bai) wife of Sultan Muzaffar (II) of Gujarat. She was a Gohil Rajput. Bahadur Shah was her son.
  68. ^ Verma, Hari Narain; Verma, Amrit (1976). Indian Women Through the Ages. Great Indian Publishers. p. 99. Prince Bahadur's mother was Lakshmi Bai, the daughter of a Gohil Rajput.
  69. ^ Zaki, Muhammad (1996). Muslim Society in Northern India During the 15th and First Half of the 16th Century. K.P. Bagchi & Company. p. 28. ISBN 978-81-7074-175-6. Muzaffar II of Gujarat ( 1511-1526 ) had several Rajput wives and Bibi Rani, who had 7,000 personal attendants, enjoyed the supreme status. Con- scious of this, Muzaffar Shah II of Gujarat decided to settle it during his lifetime. He apprehended that his six sons -Sikandar Khan, Bahadur Khan, Latif Khan, Nasir Khan, Chand Khan and Ibrahim-all born of different mothers. Rani Bai Rajput princess of the Suryavansa family. She brought up her son with all care and affection. Despite the best arrangement for his education, the prince was not well up in studies. Bibi Rani was the chief queen of Muzaffar shah II and the mother of the Sikander Khan.
  70. ^ Eraly, Abraham (2000). Emperors of the Peacock Throne: The Saga of the Great Mughals. Penguin Books India. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-14-100143-2. Similarly, Maldev (Maldeo) of Marwar had married a daughter to Sultan Mahmud of Gujarat, and another to Islam Shah.
  71. ^ Sharma, Anima (2005). Tribe in Transition: A Study of Thakur Gonds. Mittal Publications. p. 124. ISBN 978-81-7099-989-8. Sangram Shah (1448-1541) is the most well known ruler of Gond Kingdom of Garha-Katanga (Garha- Mandla). His powerful, brave and handsome son Dalpat Shah (Singh) captured and married the Rajput princess Durgawati, the daughter of Chandela Raja of Mahoba, known for her great beauty. Thus, arose a Gond-Rajput combination that enhanced the name of the feudal caste of Raj-Gonds. After four years of their marriage Dalpat Shah (also known as Dalpat Singh) died in 1500 A.D. and Rani Durgawati became the queen regent for her three year old son Bir Narayan.
  72. ^ Yadav, Smita (2018-06-13). Precarious Labour and Informal Economy: Work, Anarchy, and Society in an Indian Village. Springer. p. 58. ISBN 978-3-319-77971-3. Prior to that, the Gond King, Dalpat Shah, in this region won the marriage of Rani Durgavati, a Rajput princess, by defeating her father in a fight.
  73. ^ a b c d e Michael Fisher (1 October 2015). A Short History of the Mughal Empire. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 88–90. ISBN 978-0-85772-976-7.
  74. ^ Dhar, Sunita (1989). Senia Gharana, Its Contribution to Indian Classical Music. Reliance Publishing House. p. 24. ISBN 978-81-85047-49-2.
  75. ^ Maryam Juzer Kherulla (12 October 2002). "Profile: Tansen – the mesmerizing maestro". Dawn. Archived from the original on 21 November 2007. Retrieved 2 October 2007.
  76. ^ Richard Eaton 2019, p. 139, [1]:Only the Sisodia clan of Mewar in southern Rajasthan proudly claiming pre-eminence among the Rajput clans, refused to send its women to the Mughal Harem, resulting in the siege and mass suicide at Chittor.
  77. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Hooja, Rima (2006). A History of Rajasthan. Rupa & Company, 2006. pp. 548–552. ISBN 9788129108906. Archived from the original on 2022-08-31. Retrieved 2022-04-15.
  78. ^ Belli, Melia (2005). Royal Umbrellas of Stone: Memory, Politics, and Public Identity in Rajput funerary arts. Brill. p. 142. ISBN 9789004300569.
  79. ^ Singh, Rajvi Amar (1992). Mediaeval History of Rajasthan: Western Rajasthan. pp. 145–175.
  80. ^ Saran, Richard; Ziegler, Norman P. (2001). The Meṛtīyo Rāṭhoṛs of Meṛto, Rājasthān: Biographical notes with introduction, glossary of kinship terms and indexes. University of Michigan, Centers for South and Southeast Asian Studies. p. 194. ISBN 9780891480853.
  81. ^ Kothiyal, Tanuja (2016). Nomadic Narratives: A History of Mobility and Identity in the Great Indian Desert. Cambridge University Press. pp. 85, 87. ISBN 9781107080317.
  82. ^ The Mertiyo Rathors of Merta, Rajasthan. Vol. II. pp. 366–367.
  83. ^ a b Waseem, Shah Mohammad (2003). A Persian historiography in India. Kanishka Publishers. pp. 78–79. ISBN 9788173915376. Archived from the original on 2023-03-18. Retrieved 2022-07-15.
  84. ^ Fazl, Abu'l. Akbarnama. Vol. II. p. 518.
  85. ^ The Mertiyo Rathors of Merta, Rajasthan. Vol. I. p. 4.
  86. ^ The Mertiyo Rathors of Merta, Rajasthan. Vol. II. p. 362.
  87. ^ Chandra, Satish (1993). Mughal Religious Policies, the Rajputs & the Deccan. New Delhi, India: Vikas Publishing House. pp. 17–18. ISBN 978-0-7069-6385-4.
  88. ^ Collier, Dirk (2016-03-01). The Great Mughals and their India. Hay House, Inc. ISBN 978-93-84544-98-0. If Babur and his son Humayun were still full-blooded Central Asian Turks, Akbar through his mother (Hamida Banu Begum) was half Persian and Akbar's son Jahangir (through his mother, the princess of Amber) was therefore 25 per cent Turk, 25 per cent Persian and 50 per cent Rajput. Shah Jahan (the Mughal par excellence), Jahangir's son, was 75 per cent Rajput: both his mother (Rajkumari Shri Manavati Bai Lall Sahiba alias Taj Bibi Bilqis Makani) and his paternal grandmother were Rajput princesses.
  89. ^ Mertiyo Rathors of Merta, Rajasthan Vol II. p. 361.
  90. ^ Saran, Richard Davis; Ziegler, Norman Paul (2001). The Meṛtīyo Rāṭhoṛs of Meṛto, Rājasthān: Translations and notes with appendices, glossary, introductory material and indexes. University of Michigan, Centers for South and Southeast Asian Studies. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-891-48085-3.
  91. ^ The Mertiyo Rathors of Merta, Rajasthan; Volume II. p. 51.
  92. ^ The Mertiyo Rathors of Merta, Rajasthan. Vol. II. p. 45.
  93. ^ Sarkar, Kobita. Shah Jahan and His Paradise on Earth. p. 164.
  94. ^ Lal, Ruby (2005). The Mughal Harem: Women and the Culture of Empire. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 197–201.
  95. ^ Irvine, William (1991) [First published 1921]. Later Mughals. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. p. 141. Archived from the original on 2023-03-18. Retrieved 2022-07-15.
  96. ^ Towheed, Shafquat (2007-10-01). New Readings in the Literature of British India, c. 1780–1947. Columbia University Press. p. 211. ISBN 978-3-89821-673-9.
  97. ^ D. D. Gaur (1978). Constitutional Development of Eastern Rajputana States. Usha. p. 49. OCLC 641457000. These slave communities were known by various names, such as Darogas, Chakars, Hazuris, Ravana- Rajputs, Chelas, Golas and Khawas.
  98. ^ Lindsey Harlan 1992, p. 145,167.
  99. ^ a b c Chandra, Satish (2007). History of Medieval India. New Delhi: Orient Longman. ISBN 978-81-250-3226-7.
  100. ^ Mukherjee, Soma (2001). Royal Mughal Ladies and Their Contributions. Kalpas Publisher. ISBN 978-81-212-0760-7. Archived from the original on 2022-08-31. Retrieved 2022-04-15.
  101. ^ Gupta, R.K.; Bakshi, S.R. (2008). Studies In Indian History: Rajasthan Through The Ages The Heritage Of Rajputs (Set Of 5 Vols.). Sarup & Sons. ISBN 978-81-7625-841-8.
  102. ^ Rahman, Munibur. "Salīm, Muḥammad Ḳulī". Encyclopédie de l'Islam. BRILL. doi:10.1163/9789004206106_eifo_sim_6549.
  103. ^ Azad, Mohammad Akram Lari (1990). Religion and Politics in India During the Seventeenth Century. Criterion Publications. p. 46. There had been marriages between Rajput princess and Muslim rulers before this , but these were forced and unwilling ... ambitions of Emperor. On 13th February 1585 in marriage of Salim with Man Bai daughter of Bhagwant Das of Amber ...
  104. ^ Irvine, William (1991) [First published 1921]. Later Mughals. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. p. 209. Archived from the original on 2023-03-18. Retrieved 2022-07-15.
  105. ^ Jagatanārāyaṇa (1999). Ajmer and the Mughal Emperors (Page_121). Neha Vikas Prakashan. p. 121. On Saturday , the 30th July , 1681 A.D. , Muhammad Kam Bakhsh was married to Kalyan Kumari , daughter of Amar Chand and sister of Jagat Singh , Zamindar of Manoharpur . This marriage was also held in the Jama Mosque .
  106. ^ Singh, Rajvi Amar (1992). Mediaeval History of Rajasthan: Western Rajasthan. Rajvi Amar Singh, 1992. p. 1166. Archived from the original on 2022-08-31. Retrieved 2022-04-15.
  107. ^ Journal of Indian History, Volume 46. Department of Modern Indian History, 1968. 1968. p. 32. Archived from the original on 2022-08-31. Retrieved 2022-04-15.
  108. ^ Somānī, Rāmavallabha (1990). History of Jaisalmer. Panchsheel Prakashan. p. 59. ISBN 978-81-7056-070-8. Jehangir (Salim) mentions in his Memoirs Maharawal Bhim is a man of rank of influence- His daughter had been married to me , when I was a prince and I had given a title of ' Malika ye Jehan ' to her . She was very handsome.
  109. ^ Chapalgaonkar, Narendra; Panse, Sharadchandra (2022-03-21), "Maharaja Kishan Prashad", The Last Nizam and His People, London: Routledge India, pp. 17–24, doi:10.4324/9781003093336-3, ISBN 978-1-003-09333-6, retrieved 2024-10-21
  110. ^ Joglekar, Anagha (2018-09-25). Prerna Publication : Bajiraw Peshwa: The Insurmountable Warrior. Prerna Publication. p. 47. ISBN 978-93-87463-10-3. It was at this time that Raja Chhatrasal introduced Bajirao to his daughter Mastani. Mastani was Raja Chhatrasal's daughter even though her mother was not his legal wife.
  111. ^ Jaswant Lal Mehta (2005-01-01). Advanced Study in the History of Modern India 1707-1813. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p. 108. ISBN 978-1-932705-54-6. Of his own sweet will The Rajput king bestowed a large number of Personal Jagir to Bajirao near Jhansi and further offer hand of her daughter Mastani born from his Muslim Concubine
  112. ^ Vaidya, Sushila (2000). Role of Women in Maratha Politics, 1620-1752 A.D. Sharada Publishing House. p. 147. ISBN 978-81-85616-67-4. Chimnajee Appa took position at Purandar fort with Shahu. Sambhaji II was declared Chhatrapati at Poona and was married to a Rajput princess of Ramnagar.
  113. ^ Roy Choudhry, M L (1951). The State Religion In Mughal India. Indian Publicity Society, Calcutta. p. 223. Son of Gokül, the Jat leader, was converted; he became a Hafiz and was named Fadil. Gokül's daughter was converted and married to Shāh Qūli.
  114. ^ a b Jhala, Angma Dey (2015-10-06). Courtly Indian Women in Late Imperial India. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-31443-1.
  115. ^ Ramusack, B.N. (2004). The Indian Princes and their States. The New Cambridge History of India. Cambridge University Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-1-139-44908-3. Retrieved 2024-11-05.
  116. ^ Brentnall, M. (2004). The Princely and Noble Families of the Former Indian Empire: Himachal Pradesh. Indus Publishing Company. p. 92. ISBN 978-81-7387-163-4. Retrieved 2024-11-05.
  117. ^ Poddar, Abhishek; Gaskell, Nathaniel; Pramod Kumar, K. G; Museum of Art & Photography (Bangalore, India) (2015). "Kapurthala". Maharanis: women of royal India. Ahmedabad: Mapin Publishing. pp. 47–48. ISBN 978-93-85360-06-0. OCLC 932267190.
  118. ^ Jhala, Angma Dey (2015-10-06). Courtly Indian Women in Late Imperial India. Routledge. p. 93. ISBN 978-1-317-31444-8. Similarly, Sita Devi's marriage reflected these early twentieth-century aspi- rations for legitimacy through purity of bloodlines. Born into the small Rathor Rajput state of Kashipur in the United Provinces in 1915, Sita Devi was brought up believing she would marry a nobleman from another Rajput princely state. Kashipur observed the traditions of the zenana, and she grew up in strict pardah, after the age of seven-and-a-half. At thirteen, she was married to Maharaj Kumar Karamjit Singh of Kapurthala, a Sikh state in the Punjab.
  119. ^ Ray, Krishnendu; Srinivas, Tulasi (May 2012). Curried Cultures: Globalization, Food, and South Asia. University of California Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-520-27011-4.
  120. ^ Jhala, Angma Dey (2015-10-06). Courtly Indian Women in Late Imperial India. Routledge. pp. 92, 93. ISBN 978-1-317-31444-8. Two such marriages, the marriages of Vijaya Raje Scindia, a Rajput Rana noblewoman from Nepal married to the Maratha ruler of Gwalior state, and Sita Devi, a Rathor Rajput princess who wed a Sikh chief of Kapurthala dynasty....Rajput, Vijaya Raje was the only non-Maratha woman to be married into the Scindia family in 200 years.

Bibliography

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