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Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana

Coordinates: 29°23′N 89°29′W / 29.39°N 89.48°W / 29.39; -89.48
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Plaquemines Parish
Parish
Plaquemines Parish Courthouse
Plaquemines Parish Courthouse
Flag of Plaquemines Parish
Flag
Map of Louisiana highlighting Plaquemines Parish
Location within the U.S. state of Louisiana
Map of the United States highlighting Louisiana
Louisiana's location within the U.S.
Coordinates: 29°23′N 89°29′W / 29.39°N 89.48°W / 29.39; -89.48
Country United States
State Louisiana
Founded1807
Named forLouisiana French word for persimmons
SeatPointe à la Hache
Largest communityBelle Chasse
Area
 • Total
2,567 sq mi (6,650 km2)
 • Land780 sq mi (2,000 km2)
 • Water1,787 sq mi (4,630 km2)  70%
Population
 (2020)
 • Total
23,515
 • Density30.15/sq mi (11.64/km2)
Time zoneUTC−6 (Central)
 • Summer (DST)UTC−5 (CDT)
Congressional district1st
Websiteplaqueminesparish.com

Plaquemines Parish (/ˈplækɪmɪnz/ PLAK-im-inz; French: Paroisse de Plaquemine; Louisiana French: Paroisse des Plaquemines; Spanish: Parroquia de Plaquemines) is a parish located in the U.S. state of Louisiana. With a population of 23,515 at the 2020 census,[1] the parish seat is Pointe à la Hache and the largest community is Belle Chasse.[2] The parish was formed in 1807.[3]

Plaquemines Parish is part of the New Orleans–Metairie metropolitan statistical area. It was severely damaged in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina on August 29, 2005, and in hurricane events in 2011 and 2021.

History

[edit]

The name "Plaquemines," in French Creole, was derived from the Atakapa word piakimin, meaning the local fruit persimmon. The French used it to name a military post they built on the banks of the Mississippi River, as the site was surrounded by numerous persimmon trees. Eventually the name was applied to the entire parish and to a nearby bayou.

The oldest European settlement in the parish was La Balize, where the French built and inhabited a crude fort by 1699 near the mouth of the Mississippi River. The name in French meant "seamark", a tall structure of wood built as a guide for ships. By 1721 the French built one 62 feet (19 m) high.[4] A surviving map from about 1720 shows the island and fort, and the mouth of the river.[5]

As traffic and trade on the river increased, so did the importance of river pilots who were knowledgeable about the complicated, ever-changing currents and sandbars in the river. They lived at La Balize with their families. The village was destroyed and rebuilt numerous times, but it was abandoned for good after being destroyed by a September 1860 hurricane. The pilots moved upriver and built the settlement they named Pilottown, which reached its peak of population in the 19th century.[6] The river pilots' expertise continues to be critical, but now they generally live with their families in more populated areas. They stay at Pilottown temporarily for work.

An important historical site is Fort Jackson, built in 1822 as recommended by General Andrew Jackson, hero of the Battle of New Orleans in the War of 1812. In 1861, Fort Jackson served as an important Confederate defense for the city of New Orleans during the Civil War because it was at the mouth of the Mississippi River. The US Army used it as a training base during World War I, 1917–1918.

Plaquemines is one of only two parishes that have kept their same boundaries from the beginning of Louisiana's parishes in 1807 to today, the other being St. Bernard Parish.

20th century to present

[edit]

Because Plaquemines Parish encompasses the last 70 miles (110 km) of the Mississippi River before it reaches the Gulf of Mexico, it is the site of several oil refineries, which rely on the shipping lanes for moving their product. The Mississippi River Delta of Plaquemines is also a base for assistance to offshore oil rigs. Plaquemines Parish was the first place in the United States where shippers used a container for cargo in foreign trade. The area is also known for having the southernmost point in Louisiana, at just under 29 degrees north.

In the early 1900s, Plaquemines was an exporter of citrus. Farmers used the railroads and the Mississippi to ship the large annual harvest to markets. Commercial fisheries, especially for oysters, have been important in the parish economy.

From 1924 to 1969, Plaquemines and St. Bernard parishes were effectively the domain of the Democratic political boss Leander Perez, who established a strong hold over the area.[7] He was notorious for fixing elections and enforcing strict racial segregation. Upon his death, his sons Leander Perez Jr., and Chalin O. Perez were elected as the dominant political figures of the parish as district attorney and parish president, respectively. Interpersonal feuding weakened the family's hold on power. After another decade, by 1980 political opponents had begun to win local elections.[7]

The Civil Rights struggle for African-Americans to become registered voters in Plaquemines Parish began in October 1946, under the guidance of Dr. Rev. Percy Murphy Griffin. With the aid of Attorneys Earl Amedee and Louis Berry from New Orleans, Griffin and twenty-six African-Americans from Plaquemines Parish organized the Plaquemines Parish Civil and Political Organization, Inc., to fight racial barriers established by Perez. In the summer of 1953, the group organized a voter registration drive for African Americans. In 1954, Irene Griffin became the first black woman to register to vote in the parish.[8] The organization filed class-action suits against Leander Perez and in 1953, several African-Americans became registered voters in Plaquemines Parish. In 1966, the organization led the fight to integrate public schools. The movement also worked to get Seymourville and another small community included within the parish boundaries; the city had sought to exclude these majority-black communities to prevent black votes from being counted.[9] The Civil Rights Act of 1964 ended legal segregation, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 authorized federal oversight and enforcement of voter registration and elections in jurisdictions with historic under-representation of minority elements of the population. After 1965, African Americans in Louisiana began full participation in Louisiana politics.

Hurricanes and flooding

[edit]

Plaquemines Parish has repeatedly been hit by flooding. The August 1901 Hurricane caused damage, including 4 feet of water in Buras.[10] The Great Hurricane of 1915 devastated much of the parish, with multiple levee breaches on both sides of the Mississippi, a 12-foot storm surge, and hundreds of deaths. Homelessness was widespread, and many people were reduced to starvation until charitable aid arrived.[11] The old Parish Courthouse in Pointe à la Hache was among the many buildings destroyed in the storm, but a new one was completed within the year.

During the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927, city and state leaders used dynamite to breach a levee at Caernarvon, thirteen miles (21 km) below Canal Street, in order to save the city of New Orleans from flooding. This action resulted in the flooding of much of the less populated St. Bernard and Plaquemines parishes, causing widespread destruction to agriculture and housing.

In 1965, Hurricane Betsy flooded many buildings, including the parish courthouse, and caused nine deaths. Leander Perez sealed off the parish to control the distribution of state assistance.[12] Again in 1969, Hurricane Camille devastated portions of Plaquemines Parish. Storm surge over 10 feet, winds over 100 miles per hour, and peak pressure at 941 hPa devastated Buras, Louisiana, Venice, Louisiana, and many more towns and cities.

Hurricane Katrina struck Louisiana on August 29, 2005, resulting in one of the worst disasters in United States history; it severely damaged all of southeast Louisiana. Martial law was not declared in Plaquemines, contrary to many media reports, as no such term exists in Louisiana state law.[13] No place escaped without some damage, while most of Plaquemines, Orleans, and neighboring St. Bernard parishes was severely affected. The towns of Pointe à la Hache, Port Sulphur, Buras, Triumph, Empire, Boothville, Phoenix, and Venice suffered catastrophic damage. Amid heavy rains accompanied by hurricane-force winds in excess of 120 mph (190 km/h) at initial landfall (with a Category 5 storm surge), the levees failed and broke. The storm surge which flowed in was more than 20 feet (6.1 m) high. Although a majority of the populace had complied with mandatory state evacuation orders, some did not, possibly because they were not able to. At least three people died.[citation needed]

It is estimated that without significant human intervention, Plaquemines Parish will lose 55% of its current land to rising sea levels over the next 50 years.[14]

Geography

[edit]

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the parish has a total area of 2,567 square miles (6,650 km2), of which 780 square miles (2,000 km2) is land and 1,787 square miles (4,630 km2) (70%) is water.[15] It is the largest parish by total area in Louisiana. Plaquemines Parish is bordered to the south and southeast by the Gulf of Mexico.

Major highways

[edit]

Adjacent parishes and features

[edit]

National protected areas

[edit]

Historic sites

[edit]
Main article: National Register of Historic Places listings in Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana

The parish includes three United States National Historic Landmarks:

The parish has five other sites listed on the National Register of Historic Places, including Woodland Plantation, which has been depicted on the label of Southern Comfort liqueur since the 1930s. Woodland Plantation is an antebellum mansion located in West Pointe à la Hache, on the west bank of the Mississippi River. It is now operated as a bed and breakfast.

Communities

[edit]
Map of Plaquemines Parish with municipal labels

There are no incorporated areas within Plaquemines Parish. Communities not listed below include Happy Jack, Myrtle Grove, Nairn, Naomi, Oakville, and Scarsdale.

Census-designated places

[edit]

Unincorporated communities

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Outdated designations

[edit]

Ghost towns

[edit]

Climate

[edit]

The parish has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) with mild winters, long, hot and humid summers, plentiful rain year-round, and all months averaging significantly above 50″F (10°C). Six months average above 22°C (71.6°F.) [2] The hardiness zone is 10a. [3]

Demographics

[edit]
Historical population
CensusPop.Note%±
18202,354—
18304,48990.7%
18405,06012.7%
18507,39046.0%
18608,49414.9%
187010,55224.2%
188011,5759.7%
189012,5418.3%
190013,0394.0%
191012,524−3.9%
192010,194−18.6%
19309,608−5.7%
194012,31828.2%
195014,23915.6%
196022,54558.3%
197025,22511.9%
198026,0493.3%
199025,575−1.8%
200026,7574.6%
201023,042−13.9%
202023,5152.1%
U.S. Decennial Census[16]
1790–1960[17] 1900–1990[18]
1990–2000[19] 2010–2013[20]
Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana – Racial and ethnic composition
Note: the US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos may be of any race.
Race / Ethnicity (NH = Non-Hispanic) Pop 2000[21] Pop 2010[22] Pop 2020[23] % 2000 % 2010 % 2020
White alone (NH) 18,412 15,617 13,764 68.81% 67.78% 58.53%
Black or African American alone (NH) 6,227 4,675 4,863 23.27% 20.29% 20.68%
Native American or Alaska Native alone (NH) 549 340 255 2.05% 1.48% 1.08%
Asian alone (NH) 696 726 1,042 2.60% 3.15% 4.43%
Pacific Islander alone (NH) 3 19 40 0.01% 0.08% 0.17%
Other race alone (NH) 91 96 191 0.34% 0.42% 0.81%
Mixed race or Multiracial (NH) 346 502 1,124 1.29% 2.18% 4.78%
Hispanic or Latino (any race) 433 1,068 2,236 1.62% 4.63% 9.51%
Total 26,757 23,042 23,515 100.00% 100.00% 100.00%

At the 2000 U.S. census,[24] there were 26,757 people, 9,021 households, and 7,000 families residing in the parish; in 2010, its population declined to 23,042. The 2019 American Community Survey estimated 23,338 people resided in the parish.[25] At the 2020 U.S. census, the population was 23,515.[1]

At the 2019 census estimates, the racial and ethnic makeup of the parish was 67.9% non-Hispanic white, 20.3% Black and African American, 1.1% American Indian and Alaska Native, 3.9% Asian, 1.8% some other race, and 5.0% from two or more races; an estimated 7.3% of the population were Hispanic and Latino American of any race.[25] In 2000, the racial makeup of the parish was 69.77% White, 23.39% Black or African American, 2.07% Native American, 2.62% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.73% from other races, and 1.42% from two or more races; 1.62% of the population were Hispanic or Latino American of any race. Of the population in 2000, 2.22% reported speaking French or Creole French at home; in 2019, 10.4% of the population spoke another language other than English at home. Reflecting nationwide demographic trends of non-Hispanic white decline,[26] the 2020 census determined 58.53% of the population was non-Hispanic white, 20.68% Black or African American, 1.08% Native American, 4.40% Asian, 0.17% Pacific Islander, 5.59% two or more races, and 9.51% Hispanic and Latino American of any race.[27][28]

In 2000, were 9,021 households, out of which 39.50% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.50% were married couples living together, 14.60% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.40% were non-families. 18.60% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.10% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.89 and the average family size was 3.30. At the 2019 census estimates, there were 8,919 households living in 10,174 housing units.[25]

The median income for a household in the parish was $38,173, and the median income for a family was $42,610 in 2000. Males had a median income of $37,245 versus $21,691 for females. The per capita income for the parish was $15,937. About 15.40% of families and 18.00% of the population were below the poverty line, including 20.70% of those under age 18 and 18.40% of those age 65 or over. In 2019, the median household income increased to $57,204. Males had a median income of $49,251 versus $36,404 for females; 18.2% of the parish population lived at or below the poverty line.

Religiously, Christianity has been the area's predominant religion. According to the Association of Religion Data Archives in 2020, the Roman Catholic Church was the parish's largest single Christian denomination with 14,845 members spread throughout 5 parish churches. Non-denominational and interdenominational congregationalist, Bible, and United and Uniting churches were the second-largest Christian group in the parish with 1,190 members.[29] The non/inter-denominational churches reflected the increase among ecumenical and independent churches throughout Louisiana since the 2020 religion census by the Association of Religion Data Archives.

Economy

[edit]

Plaquemines has a significant seafood industry. The parish exports millions of pounds of shrimp, crab, oysters, and fish annually. Plaquemines also has a vibrant citrus and horticulture nursery stock industry, but saltwater intrusion is becoming a hurdle to these producers.[30] The seafood and citrus industries have suffered somewhat in the wake of Hurricane Katrina in August 2005. About half the shrimping and shellfish fleet were lost. In January 2007, thousands of citrus trees went unpicked.[citation needed]

As of 2012, Plaquemines parish is the largest crude-oil producing parish in Louisiana. It produced over 14 million barrels in 2012.[31]

Plaquemines Port is one of the largest ports in the United States, handling mostly domestic traffic. The Plaquemines Port, Harbor & Terminal District is coextensive with the parish. It was created in 1954 by the legislature of Louisiana as a state agency. It is governed by a committee of the Plaquemines Parish Council, acting as the Port Board.[32]

Alternative energy

[edit]

Oil and gas continue to play a dominant role in the Plaquemines economy; however, there is a growing policy and resource trend in favor of renewable resources. The Parish government is working with public and private partners to invest in renewable energy, including hydrokinetic energy and wind energy. Plaquemines has a huge potential for hydrokinetic energy sites along deep bends in the Mississippi River. The flow of the river is 470,000 cubic feet per second at the Head of Passes during normal river stages and 1,250,000 during peak times.[33] Tidal turbines would be placed in deep bends of the river below seagoing and barge traffic. The turbines would also be located below the usual migrating routes of fish. Four companies intending to install turbines are in the regulatory and permitting stages.[34]

The potential installation of wind turbines at the mouth of the Mississippi River is also being considered.[35] The capacity of a wind source to produce energy is generally measured by Wind Power Density. Wind Power Densities are divided into seven Wind Power Classes. According to the American Wind Energy Association, Plaquemines has winds in specified areas that fall into a Wind Power Class of seven, which makes the Parish a particularly attractive location for wind turbine investment. Wind turbines would likely be placed at the mouth of the Mississippi, where winds are the strongest. Wind Energy Systems Technology has proposed to build a 12.5 MV wind farm in Barataria Bay off the coast of Plaquemines Parish. The energy would be sent to Myrtle Gove through an underground cable. The wind farm would be supplemented with natural gas turbines when wind speeds are either not sufficient or too robust to supply power. A similar proposal is being considered for the southern portion of the Parish.

Education

[edit]

Plaquemines Parish School Board operates the public schools of the parish.[36]

The parish is in the service area of Nunez Community College.[37]

Politics

[edit]

Plaquemines Parish was for a long time controlled by the notorious Democrat political boss Leander Perez, who turned the parish's voters away from the National Democratic Party with his support of the Dixiecrat ticket in 1948.[38] The parish has been solidly anti-Democratic and at times overwhelmingly so at a Presidential level since 1948, with the only Democratic nominee subsequently to carry the parish being Bill Clinton in 1996. In 1952 it was the most Republican county-equivalent in the nation,[39] and until the decay of the Perez machine no Democrat was to pass thirty percent of the parish's vote.

Plaquemines Parish is the home of former Parish President and current Lieutenant Governor of Louisiana Billy Nungesser.

Plaquemines Parish President Keith Hinkley in September 2023

Former Parish President, Republican Amos Cormier III, who additionally secured the endorsement of the parish Libertarians, defeated his Republican rival Kirk Lepine in the 2016 special election runoff by a margin of some 20 percent. On December 8, 2018, however, Lepine in a runoff rematch unseated Cormier, 3,625 votes (52 percent) to 3,289 (48 percent).[40]

Keith Hinkley was elected Parish President in 2022.[41]

United States presidential election results for Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana[42]
Year Republican Democratic Third party(ies)
No.  % No.  % No.  %
2020 7,412 67.30% 3,414 31.00% 188 1.71%
2016 6,900 65.26% 3,347 31.66% 326 3.08%
2012 6,471 63.20% 3,599 35.15% 169 1.65%
2008 6,894 65.98% 3,380 32.35% 175 1.67%
2004 7,866 64.72% 4,181 34.40% 106 0.87%
2000 6,302 57.65% 4,425 40.48% 204 1.87%
1996 4,493 41.61% 5,348 49.53% 956 8.85%
1992 5,018 44.58% 4,467 39.68% 1,772 15.74%
1988 6,084 59.11% 3,997 38.83% 212 2.06%
1984 7,655 69.74% 3,261 29.71% 61 0.56%
1980 5,489 54.46% 4,318 42.84% 272 2.70%
1976 6,052 68.35% 2,614 29.52% 189 2.13%
1972 6,595 83.05% 990 12.47% 356 4.48%
1968 968 11.33% 1,144 13.39% 6,430 75.28%
1964 4,904 86.35% 775 13.65% 0 0.00%
1960 712 13.84% 1,087 21.12% 3,347 65.04%
1956 2,998 81.20% 534 14.46% 160 4.33%
1952 3,370 92.97% 255 7.03% 0 0.00%
1948 90 3.24% 77 2.78% 2,607 93.98%
1944 335 16.03% 1,755 83.97% 0 0.00%
1940 204 9.34% 1,979 90.66% 0 0.00%
1936 94 4.08% 2,209 95.92% 0 0.00%
1932 38 1.94% 1,918 98.06% 0 0.00%
1928 98 8.49% 1,056 91.51% 0 0.00%
1924 119 20.84% 432 75.66% 20 3.50%
1920 124 26.44% 329 70.15% 16 3.41%
1916 43 8.41% 461 90.22% 7 1.37%
1912 41 9.40% 361 82.80% 34 7.80%

Notable people

[edit]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b "QuickFacts: Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana". U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved August 12, 2021.
  2. ^ "Find a County". National Association of Counties. Retrieved June 7, 2011.
  3. ^ "Plaquemines Parish". Center for Cultural and Eco-Tourism. Retrieved September 6, 2014.
  4. ^ David Roth, "Louisiana Hurricane History: 18th Century (1722-1800)", Tropical Weather - National Weather Service - Lake Charles, LA; 24 Jun 2003, accessed May 7, 2008
  5. ^ "Carte du Fleuve Saint Louis ou Mississippy dix lieues au dessous de la Novelle Orleans jusqu'a son Embouchoure", Louisiana State Museum Map Database, originally accessed May 6, 2008, only catalog entry available online April 4, 2016
  6. ^ David Roth, "Louisiana Hurricane History: Late 19th Century (1851-1900)", Tropical Weather - National Weather Service - Lake Charles, LA; Jun 2003, accessed May 6, 2008
  7. ^ a b Glen Jeansonne, Leander Perez: Boss of the Delta ISBN 1604736372
  8. ^ "Irene Griffin, first black woman to register to vote in Plaquemines Parish, dies at 84". New Orleans Times-Picayune. March 29, 2012. Retrieved December 29, 2018. Mrs. Griffin was an ardent supporter of her husband's efforts to take on segregationist Judge Leander Perez Sr. When the Rev. Griffin returned home in 1946 after serving in World War II, he started a voter registration campaign for black residents. Mrs. Griffin became the first black woman to register to vote in 1954.
  9. ^ Louisiana Diary Archived August 3, 2014, at the Wayback Machine, March 16, 1964, Written, directed and narrated by Richard O. Moore, aired on PBS
  10. ^ "Louisiana Hurricanes", The Cajuns
  11. ^ "Hurricane of 1915: Plaquemines Parish History"
  12. ^ Jeansonne; Leander Perez, p. 354
  13. ^ McDonell, Keelin (September 2, 2005). "What Is Martial Law?". Slate. ISSN 1091-2339. Retrieved March 6, 2018.
  14. ^ Sack, Kevin; Schwartz, John (October 8, 2018). "As Storms Keep Coming, FEMA Spends Billions in 'Cycle' of Damage and Repair". The New York Times. Retrieved October 9, 2018.
  15. ^ "2010 Census Gazetteer Files". United States Census Bureau. August 22, 2012. Archived from the original on September 28, 2013. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
  16. ^ "U.S. Decennial Census". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
  17. ^ "Historical Census Browser". University of Virginia Library. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
  18. ^ "Population of Counties by Decennial Census: 1900 to 1990". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
  19. ^ "Census 2000 PHC-T-4. Ranking Tables for Counties: 1990 and 2000" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 27, 2010. Retrieved August 20, 2014.
  20. ^ "State & County QuickFacts". United States Census Bureau. Archived from the original on June 6, 2011. Retrieved August 18, 2013.
  21. ^ "P004: Hispanic or Latino, and Not Hispanic or Latino by Race – 2000: DEC Summary File 1 – Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved January 26, 2024.
  22. ^ "P2: Hispanic or Latino, and Not Hispanic or Latino by Race – 2010: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94-171) – Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved January 26, 2024.
  23. ^ "P2: Hispanic or Latino, and Not Hispanic or Latino by Race – 2020: DEC Redistricting Data (PL 94-171) – Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved January 26, 2024.
  24. ^ "U.S. Census website". United States Census Bureau. Retrieved January 31, 2008.
  25. ^ a b c "Geography Profile: Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana". data.census.gov. Retrieved August 2, 2021.
  26. ^ "Census shows US is diversifying, white population shrinking". AP NEWS. August 12, 2021. Retrieved January 5, 2022.
  27. ^ "2020 Race and Population Totals". data.census.gov. Retrieved December 8, 2021.
  28. ^ Tavernise, Sabrina; Gebeloff, Robert (August 12, 2021). "Census Shows Sharply Growing Numbers of Hispanic, Asian and Multiracial Americans". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved January 5, 2022.
  29. ^ "Maps and data files for 2020 | U.S. Religion Census | Religious Statistics & Demographics". www.usreligioncensus.org. Retrieved January 17, 2023.
  30. ^ Sara Cline. (September 29, 2023). "Louisiana citrus farmers are seeing a mass influx of salt water that could threaten seedlings". AP website Retrieved October 11, 2023.
  31. ^ [1][permanent dead link‍]
  32. ^ "History" Archived March 2, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, Plaquemines Port Harbor & Terminal District website
  33. ^ "The Mississippi River Delta Basin". lacoast.gov. Retrieved March 6, 2018.
  34. ^ "Funding, paperwork slow ambitious plans to produce power using underwater turbines in Mississippi River". NOLA.com. Retrieved March 6, 2018.
  35. ^ "Economic Development Assessment" Archived June 2, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
  36. ^ "2020 CENSUS - SCHOOL DISTRICT REFERENCE MAP: Plaquemines Parish, LA" (PDF). U.S. Census Bureau. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 31, 2022. Retrieved July 31, 2022. - Text list
  37. ^ "Our Colleges". Louisiana's Technical and Community Colleges. Retrieved June 3, 2021.
  38. ^ Jeansonne; Leander Perez, p. 194
  39. ^ Dave Leip's U.S. Election Atlas; 1952 Presidential Election Statistics
  40. ^ "Election Returns (Plaquemines Parish)". Louisiana Secretary of State. December 8, 2018.
  41. ^ "Hinkley defeats Rousselle in race for Plaquemines Parish President". December 10, 2022.
  42. ^ Leip, David. "Dave Leip's Atlas of U.S. Presidential Elections". uselectionatlas.org. Retrieved March 6, 2018.
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29°23′N 89°29′W / 29.39°N 89.48°W / 29.39; -89.48

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