Jump to content

Afghanistan–Pakistan relations

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Pakistan-Afghanistan)
Pakistan–Afghanistan relations
Map indicating locations of Pakistan and Afghanistan

Pakistan
Afghanistan
Diplomatic mission
Embassy of Pakistan, KabulEmbassy of Afghanistan, Islamabad
Envoy
Ambassador Mansoor Ahmad KhanCharge d'Affaires Mohammad Shokaib[1][2]

Afghanistan–Pakistan relations refer to the bilateral ties between Afghanistan and Pakistan. In August 1947, the partition of British India led to the emergence of Pakistan along Afghanistan's eastern frontier, and the two countries have since had a strained relationship; Afghanistan was the sole country to vote against Pakistan's admission into the United Nations following the latter's independence.[3][4] Territorial disputes along the widely known "Durand Line" and conflicting claims prevented the normalization of bilateral ties between the countries throughout the mid-20th century.[5] Various Afghan government officials and Afghan nationalists have made irredentist claims to large swathes of Pakistan's territory in modern-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Pakistani Balochistan, which complete the traditional homeland of "Pashtunistan" for the Pashtun people. Afghan territorial claims over Pashtun-majority areas that are in Pakistan were coupled with discontent over the permanency of the Durand Line which has long been considered the international border by every nation other than Afghanistan,[6][7] and for which Afghanistan demanded a renegotiation, with the aim of having it shifted eastward to the Indus River.[8] During the Taliban insurgency, the Taliban has received substantial financial and logistical backing from Pakistan, which remains a significant source of support. Nonetheless, Pakistan's support for the Taliban is not without risks, as it involves playing a precarious and delicate game.[9] Further Afghanistan–Pakistan tensions have arisen concerning a variety of issues, including the Afghan conflict and Afghan refugees in Pakistan, water-sharing rights, and a continuously warming relationship between Afghanistan and India, but most of all the Taliban government in Afghanistan providing sanctuary and safe havens to Pakistani Taliban terrorists to attack Pakistani territory.[10][11] Border tensions between Afghanistan and Pakistan have escalated to an unprecedented degree following recent instances of violence along the border.[12] The Durand Line witnesses frequent occurrences of suicide bombings, airstrikes, or street battles on an almost daily basis.[13] The Taliban-led Afghan government has also accused Pakistan of undermining relations between Afghanistan and China and creating discord between the neighbouring countries.[14]

Shortly after Pakistani independence, Afghanistan materially supported the failed armed secessionist movement headed by Mirzali Khan against Pakistan.[15][16] Afghanistan's immediate support of secessionist movements within Pakistan prevented normalised ties from emerging between the two states.[4] In 1952 the government of Afghanistan published a tract in which it laid claim not only to Pashtun territory within Pakistan, but also to the Pakistani province of Balochistan.[17] On 30 March 1955, a pro-Pashtunistan group attacked the embassy and the ambassador's residence. They also tore down the Pakistani flag, to protest against the unification of the Pashtun-dominated North-West Frontier Province into West Pakistan as part of the One Unit policy. The protestors were stirred up by the Afghan Prime Minister Mohammed Daoud Khan and bussed to the site. The Afghan police did not intervene, Pakistanis in Peshawar reacted by attacking the Afghan consulate in the city following which the diplomatic relations were severed by Pakistan[18] Diplomatic relations were cut off between 1961 and 1963 after Afghanistan supported more armed separatists in Pakistan, leading to skirmishes between the two states earlier in 1960, and Pakistan's subsequent closure of the port of Karachi to Afghan transit trade.[8] Mohammed Daoud Khan became President of Afghanistan in 1973, Afghanistan—with Soviet support—again pursued a policy of arming Pashtun separatists within Pakistan.[19] Former Afghan President Hamid Karzai (in office 2004–2014) has described Pakistan and Afghanistan as "inseparable brothers" along with that he alleged that Pakistan uses terrorism against Afghanistan,[20] which is due to the historical, religious, and ethnolinguistic connections between the Pashtun people and other ethnic groups of both countries, as well as to trade and other ties.[21] Each of the two countries features amongst the other's largest trading partners,[citation needed] and Pakistan serves as a major conduit for transit trade involving landlocked Afghanistan. Currently, both countries are member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, Economic Cooperation Organization and South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation.

However, there is considerable amount of anti-Pakistan sentiment in Afghanistan,[22] while negative sentiment towards the Afghan refugees is widespread in Pakistan,[23][24][25] even in Pashtun-dominated regions.[26] The Pakistani government has taken significant action against undocumented migrants inside the country and is expelling all undocumented Afghans.[27]

Historical context

[edit]
Main articles: Durand Line, Afghans in Pakistan, and Pakistanis in Afghanistan

Southern and eastern Afghanistan is predominately Pashto-speaking, like the adjacent Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Federally Administered Tribal Areas, and northern Balochistan regions in Pakistan. This entire area is inhabited by the indigenous Pashtuns who belong to different Pashtun tribes.[28] The Pashtuns were known as (Pathans in Pakistan and India) and have lived in this region for thousands of years, since at least the 1st millennium BC.[29][30]

The Durand Line border was established after the 1893 Durand Line Agreement between Mortimer Durand of colonial British India and Amir Abdur Rahman Khan of Afghanistan for fixing the limit of their respective spheres of influence. The single-page agreement, which contained seven short articles, was signed by Durand and Khan, agreeing not to exercise political interference beyond the frontier line between Afghanistan and what was then the British Indian Empire.[31]

Shortly after the demarcation of the Durand Line, the British began connecting the region on its side of Durand line to the vast and expansive Indian railway network. Concurrently, the Afridi tribesmen began to rise up in arms against the British, creating a zone of instability between Peshawar and the Durand Line. As a result, travel across the boundary was almost entirely halted, and the Pashtun tribes living under the British rule began to orient themselves eastward in the direction of the Indian railways. By the time of the Indian independence movement, prominent Pashtun nationalists such as Abdul Ghaffar Khan advocated unity with the nearly formed Dominion of India, and not a united Afghanistan – highlighting the extent to which infrastructure and instability began to erode the Pashtun self-identification with Afghanistan. By the time of the Pakistan independence movement, popular opinion among Pashtuns was in support of joining the Dominion of Pakistan.[32][33]

Pakistan inherited the Durand Line agreement after its independence in 1947 but there has never been a formal agreement or ratification between Islamabad and Kabul. The Afghan government has not formally accepted the Durand Line as the international border between the two states, claiming that the Durand Line Agreement has been void in the past.[34] This complicated issue is very sensitive to both the countries. The Afghan government worried that if it ever ratified the agreement, it would've permanently divided the 50 million Pashtuns and thus create a backlash in Afghanistan. Pakistan felt that the border issue had been resolved before its birth in 1947. This unmanagable border has always served as the main trade route between Afghanistan and the South Asia, especially for supplies into Afghanistan.[citation needed]

Shortly after Pakistan gained independence in 1947, Afghanistan crafted a two-fold strategy to destabilize the frontier regions of Pakistan, in an attempt to take advantage of Pakistan's post-independence instability. Firstly, it strongly aligned itself with Pakistan's rival, India, and also the USSR. Secondly, it politically and financially backed secessionist politicians in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in the 1960s. In January 1950, the Afghan king, Mohammed Zahir Shah, had an anti-Pakistan speech which was condemned by Pakistan's Liaquat Ali Khan.[35] A serious incident took place on September 30, 1950, when Pakistan claimed Afghan troops had crossed into their territory near the Bogra Pass as a low-scale invasion. The Afghan government denied involvement, saying they were pro-Pashtunistan tribesmen.[36] Zahir Shah mentioned in a 1952 speech the friendly feelings towards Pakistan, but that the Pashtunistan issue cannot be ignored.[37] The 1954 military pact between Pakistan and the United States concerned Afghanistan and India, and it brought Afghanistan closer to the Soviet Union but whilst maintaining non-alignment.[38][39]

The Afghan government denounced the merger of West Pakistan provinces, and on March 30, 1955, Afghan demonstrators attacked the Pakistani embassy and consulates in Kabul, Kandahar and Jalalabad.[35] Pakistan retaliated by closing the border, an economic blockage. Diplomatic relations were restored in September.[40] Again due to the Pashtunistan issue, the two countries accused each other of border mispractices in 1961. In August, the consulates in both countries closed and relations were broken in September 1961. The situation wasn't defused until 1965.[41]

Afghanistan's policies placed a severe strain upon Pakistan–Afghan relations in the 1960s, up until the 1970s, when the Pashtunistan movement largely subsided as the population came to identify with Pakistan. The Pashtun assimilation into the Pakistani state followed years of rising Pashtun influence in Pakistani politics and the nation's bureaucracy, culminating in Ayub Khan, Yahya Khan, Ishaq Khan – all Pashtuns, attaining leadership of Pakistan. The largest nationalist party of the time, the Awami National Party (ANP), dropped its secessionist agenda and embraced the Pakistani state, leaving only a small Pakhtunkhwa Millat Party to champion the cause of independence in relation to both Pakistan and Afghanistan. Despite the weaknesses of the early secessionist movement, this period in history continues to negatively influence Pakistan-Afghanistan relations in the 21st century, in addition to the province's politics.[42]

Confederation proposal

[edit]
Main article: Afghanistan–Pakistan Confederation plan

In order to solve the disputes, mainly centered around the borders issue with the Durand line, Khurshid Mahmud Kasuri, a veteran diplomat who served as the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Pakistan (2002–2007), says that "at one time serious efforts were made at government level for an Afg–Pak Confederation", precising that these initiatives were taken during the time of President Mohammed Daoud Khan, generally considered to be anti-Pakistan for his galvanization of the Pashtunistan issue. Aslam Khattak, a politician who also served as an ambassador to Afghanistan, talked about this process in his book A Pathan Odyssey, and says that Prime Minister Malik Firoz Khan Noon and President Iskandar Mirza both agreed with the plans, the former also agreeing to take King Zahir Shah "as the constitutional Head of State", proclaiming that "after all, for some time after independence, we had a Christian Queen (Elizabeth II). Now, we would have a Muslim man!’." As per Kasuri, the United States supported the idea as well. He blames the failure of the project to the assassination of Daud Khan and the advent, in 1978, of the pro-Soviet PDPA party and Nur Muhammad Taraki.[43]

The Durrani Empire at its maximum extent under Ahmad Shah Abdali.[44]

Afghan scholar Hafizullah Emadi says that "the initial blueprint suggested that both sides would maintain their internal autonomy, but in the matter of defense, foreign policy, foreign trade and communication, there would be a central government. The prime minister would be by rotation." He also explains the failure of the proposition : Iskandar Mirza was replaced by General Ayub Khan, after a coup d'état in 1958, an ethnic Pashtun who "regarded himself as the leader of the Pashtuns in Pakistan, and believed that the Pashtuns in Afghanistan should join Pakistan under his leadership" instead of a confederation. Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto rejected the idea because "an economically underdeveloped Afghanistan would not benefit Pakistan."[45] In his diaries, in an observation dated to 9 January 1967, Ayub Khan noted that "it is people from the Punjab like Feroz Khan Noon and Amjad Ali who keep on emphasizing to me the need to make up with Afghanistan."[46]

President Zia-ul-Haq too was for such confederation. "Charles Wilson recalled a map that Zia had also shown to him in which overlay indicated the goal of a confederation embracing first Pakistan and Afghanistan and eventually Central Asia and Kashmir. Zia further explained about the Pakistan-Afghanistan confederation in which Pakistanis and Afghans could travel freely back and forth without passports."[47] General Akhtar Abdur Rahman, considered Zia's right-hand man and more importantly the DG-ISI (1979–1987), himself a Pashtun, "also shared Zia’s vision of a post-Soviet "Islamic Confederation" composed of Pakistan, Afghanistan, Kashmir and even the states of Soviet Central Asia."[48]

Even more than a confederation, recently declassified CIA documents point out that, in 1954, the Afghan government approached the US in order to have a merger with Pakistan, being threatened by the Soviet Union's economic envelopment. Pakistan's then Prime Minister Mohammad Ali Bogra was skeptical of a total merger, but the idea of a confederation in itself, on the other hand, was already floating around, as "the CIA report hinted that there had been some talk in Afghan and Pakistani official circles of some sort of confederation."[49]

Some analysts have noted that present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan have already been amalgamated into a single geographical unit during the Durrani Empire (1747–1826). For instance, scholar Muhammad Shamsuddin Siddiqi says that "Ahmed Shah's empire with its power base in Kandahar, and later transferred to Kabul, incorporated Kashmir, Punjab, Sind and Baluchistan" and thus "the Durrani empire bears the closest resemblance to Pakistan",[50] while others have noted that "since the Durrani Empire included the present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan, the forces of history, the principle of national self-determination, and the aspiration for the unity of Muslim Ummah have all come into line",[51] explaining the interconnected geopolitics of both countries, its latest example being the AfPak doctrine, theorized under the Obama administration from 2008 onward, concluding that Afghanistan and Pakistan should be the aim of common security policies considering their similarities.

Contemporary era

[edit]
Further information: War in Afghanistan (1978–present) and Afghanistan–Pakistan skirmishes
George Crile III and Charlie Wilson (Texas politician) with an unnamed political personality in the background (person wearing the aviator glasses looking at the photo camera). They were the main players in Operation Cyclone, the code name for the United States Central Intelligence Agency program to arm and finance the multi-national mujahideen during the Soviet–Afghan War, 1979 to 1989.

Relations between Afghanistan and Pakistan began deteriorating again in the 1970s when Afghanistan hosted Pashtun-Baluch militants operating against Pakistan under the leadership of National Awami Party led by Abdul Wali Khan[52] and in retaliation Pakistan started supporting Islamist movements against the progressive and Soviet-influenced Afghan government of Mohammed Daoud Khan, and encouraged the Islamists to rise up against the government.[53] The figures included Gulbuddin Hekmatyar and Ahmad Shah Massoud-both members of the Jamiat-e Islami students' political society-[54] and the Haqqanis.[55] In April 1978, Afghan President Daoud Khan was assassinated in Kabul during the self-declared Marxist Saur Revolution. This was followed by the execution of deposed Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in April 1979 and the assassination of Afghan leader Nur Muhammad Taraki in September 1979. After the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979, the United States joined Pakistan to counter Soviet influence and advance its own interests in the region. In turn, Afghan, Indian and Soviet intelligence agencies played their role by supporting al-Zulfikar – a Pakistani leftist terrorist group responsible for the March 1981 hijacking of a Pakistan International Airlines (PIA) plane.[56] Al-Zulfiqar was a Pakistani left-wing organisation formed in 1977 by Mir Murtaza Bhutto, son of former Pakistani Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. Its goal was to overthrow the military regime that ousted Bhutto.[57][58] After March 1981 Al-Zulfiqar claimed no further attacks.[57] The Bhutto family and Pakistani military dictator Zia-ul-Haq shared a common enemy, as Zia was the one supporting attacks against the Afghan government.[59][clarification needed]

Pakistan side near the Afghanistan–Pakistan border.

During the 1980s, the Durand Line was heavily used by Afghan refugees fleeing the Soviet occupation in Afghanistan, including a large number of Mujahideen insurgent groups who crossed back and forth. Pakistan became a major training ground for roughly 250,000 foreign mujahideen fighters who began crossing into Afghanistan on a daily basis to wage war against the communist Afghanistan and the Soviet forces. The mujahideen included not only locals but also Arabs and others from over 40 different Islamic nations. Many of these foreign fighters married local women and decided to stay in Pakistan, among them were radical Muslims such those of Saudi-led Al-Qaeda and Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood as well as prisoners from Arab countries.[60] Relations between the two countries remained hostile during the Soviet-Afghan War. Afghan leader Babrak Karmal refused to improve relations with Pakistan due to their refusal to formally recognize the PDPA government.[61]

Following the death of Pakistani President Zia-ul-Haq in 1988, U.S. State Department blamed the WAD (a KGB created Afghan secret intelligence agency) for terrorist attacks inside Pakistan in 1987 and 1988.[62][63] With funds from the international community channeled through the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), Pakistan hosted over 3 million Afghans at various refugee camps, mainly around Peshawar in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.[64] The United States and others provided billions of dollars in humanitarian assistance to the refugees. There were no regular schools provided for the refugees but only madrasas in which students were trained to become members of the Taliban movement.[65] When the Soviet Union began leaving Afghanistan, during the presidency of Mohammad Najibullah, the UNHCR and the international community assisted 1.5 million Afghan refugees in returning to Afghanistan.[66] Pakistan were also thought to have played a part in the attempted coup in 1990 against Najibullah's government.[67][68]

Although the victorious mujahideen formed a government in 1992 through the Peshawar Accords, Pakistan remained unhappy with new leaders Rabbani and Massoud, including their foreign policy of maintaining friendly relations with India as during the communist era. Pushing for a "trusted" friendly government in Afghanistan, the Pakistani intelligence started funding Hekmatyar-the only mujahideen commander not to sign the Accords-to fight against the new Afghan government in hopes that he would win and install a new government. Through Pakistani funding, Hekmatyar's forces sieged Kabul city with thousands of rockets for three years, killing thousands. However, upon realizing that Hekmatyar was unable to take power in Kabul, Pakistan looked elsewhere. The Taliban movement had just formed with the help of then-Pakistani Interior Minister, Naseerullah Babar, and the Pakistani intelligence threw its weight behind the new movement.[68] Around September 1994, the Taliban movement captured the Afghan city of Kandahar and began its long conquest with help from Pakistan. The Taliban claimed that they wanted to clean Afghanistan from the warlords and criminals. According to Pakistan and Afghanistan expert Ahmed Rashid, "between 1994 and 1999, an estimated few Pakistanis volunteers trained and fought in Afghanistan" keeping the Taliban regime in power.[69] The role of the Pakistani military during that time has been described by some international observers as a "creeping invasion" of Afghanistan.[69] UN documents also reveal the role of Arab and Pakistani support troops in the Taliban massacre campaigns.[70]

In late 1996, the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan emerged and established close relations with neighbouring Pakistan. However, the relations began to decline when the Taliban refused to endorse the Durand Line despite pressure from Islamabad, arguing that there shall be no borders among Muslims.[71] A discussion over the Durrand Line between the-then Taliban leader Mohammed Omar and Naseerullah Babar ended abruptly. Omar called Babar, who was an ethnic Pashtun, a traitor for saying that "all problems would be resolved" should the Durrand Line be recognised by the Taliban government.[72]

When the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan was toppled and the new Afghan government was formed, President Hamid Karzai began repeating the previous Taliban statement.[73]

"A line of hatred that raised a wall between the two brothers."

— Hamid Karzai
Afghan President Hamid Karzai with U.S. President Barack Obama and Pakistani President Asif Ali Zardari during a US-Afghan-Pakistan Trilateral meeting at the White House in Washington, DC.

The Karzai administration in Afghanistan has close relations with the Pashtun Nationalist Awami National Party (ANP) and the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP). In 2006, Afghan President Hamid Karzai warned that "Iran and Pakistan and others are not fooling anyone" when it comes to interfering in his country.

"If they don’t stop, the consequences will be … that the region will suffer with us equally. In the past we have suffered alone; this time everybody will suffer with us.… Any effort to divide Afghanistan ethnically or weaken it will create the same thing in the neighboring countries. All the countries in the neighborhood have the same ethnic groups that we have, so they should know that it is a different ball game this time."[34]

— Hamid Karzai

The Durand Line border has been used in the last decade as the main supply route for NATO-led forces in Afghanistan as well as by Taliban insurgents and other militant groups who stage attacks inside Afghanistan. The American government decided to rely on drone attacks, which began to negatively affect the US-Pakistan relations.

U.S. Armed Forces checking the border checkpoint at Torkham, between Nangarhar Province of Afghanistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan.

In 2007, Afghan intelligence captured Muhammad Hanif, the Taliban spokesman. During his interrogation which was recorded, Hanif claimed that the Taliban leader was being kept in Quetta under the protection of the ISI.[74] Pakistan denied the claims.[75]

Relations have become more strained after the Afghan government began openly accusing Pakistan of using its ISI spy network in aiding the Taliban and other militants. Pakistan usually denies these allegations but has said in the past that it does not have full control of the actions of the ISI. There have been a number of reports about the Afghanistan–Pakistan skirmishes, which usually occur when army soldiers are in hot pursuit chasing insurgents who cross the border back and forth. This leads to tensions between the two states, especially after hearing reports of civilian casualties.[76]

After the May 2011 death of Osama bin Laden in Pakistan, many prominent Afghan figures began being assassinated, including Mohammed Daud Daud, Ahmad Wali Karzai, Jan Mohammad Khan, Ghulam Haider Hamidi, Burhanuddin Rabbani and others.[77] Also in the same year, the Afghanistan–Pakistan skirmishes intensified and many large scale attacks by the Pakistani-based Haqqani network took place across Afghanistan. This led to the United States warning Pakistan of a possible military action against the Haqqanis in the Federally Administered Tribal Areas.[78] The U.S. blamed Pakistan's government, mainly Pakistani Army and its ISI spy network as the masterminds behind all of this.[79]

"In choosing to use violent extremism as an instrument of policy, the government of Pakistan, and most especially the Pakistani army and ISI, jeopardizes not only the prospect of our strategic partnership but Pakistan's opportunity to be a respected nation with legitimate regional influence. They may believe that by using these proxies, they are hedging their bets or redressing what they feel is an imbalance in regional power. But in reality, they have already lost that bet."[80]

— Admiral Mike Mullen, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff

U.S. Ambassador to Pakistan, Cameron Munter, told Radio Pakistan that "the attack that took place in Kabul a few days ago, that was the work of the Haqqani network. There is evidence linking the Haqqani Network to the Pakistan government. This is something that must stop."[81] Other top U.S. officials such as Hillary Clinton and Leon Panetta made similar statements.[79][82] Despite all of this, Afghan President Hamid Karzai labelled Pakistan as Afghanistan's "twin brother".[83]

After the May 2017 Kabul attack, the Afghan National Directorate of Security (NDS) claimed that the blast was planned by the Afghan insurgent group Haqqani Network, and reiterated allegations that those elements had support and presence across the border in Pakistan.[84] Afghan President Ashraf Ghani stated that Pakistan has instigated an "undeclared war of aggression" against the country.[85] Pakistan's Foreign Ministry spokesman, Nafees Zakaria rejected the Afghan allegations as "baseless".[86]

Since the Taliban's inception, the Pakistani Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) agency has been providing them with funding, training, and weaponry. In 2017, the Pakistani military have accused Afghanistan of sheltering various terrorist groups which launch attacks into Pakistan,[87] while Afghan authorities have blamed Pakistan's intelligence agency, the ISI, for funding warlords and the Taliban, and for basing terrorist camps within Pakistani territory to target Afghanistan.[88][89][90]

In 2015, Inter-Services Intelligence and National Directorate of Security inked a memorandum of understanding. Under the memorandum of understanding, both nations agreed to fight terrorism together and also to share intelligence information.[91][92] On 16 May 2015, the Pakistani army launched an operation to save the life of an injured Afghan soldier on the Afghanistan side of the border. The soldier was injured in a clash with militants and he was evacuated by the Pakistan military.[93] There have been instances where Afghan soldiers injured in fighting the militants near the Pakistan Afghanistan border are sent to Pakistan for treatment.[94][95]

After the Afghan Taliban took power in Kabul, Pakistani PM Imran Khan describing it as Afghans breaking "the shackles of slavery".[96] Although Pakistan still not officially recognizes the Taliban's Islamic Emirate, it launched a diplomatic effort urging the international community to engage with the Taliban, help ease Afghanistan's humanitarian crisis and prevent it from descending into chaos again. In December 2021, foreign ministers of the 56 nations belonging to the Organization of Islamic Cooperation, along with Taliban delegates, gathered in Islamabad. The meeting focused on Afghanistan's humanitarian crisis.[97] But the Pakistani Taliban (TTP) attacks lead to growing tension between the Afghan Taliban government and Pakistan.[98]

In April 2022, Islamabad urged Kabul "to secure Pak-Afghan Border region and take stern actions against the individuals involved in terrorist activities in Pakistan",[99] and Pakistan Air Force conducted air raids across its border with Afghanistan, claiming to strike TTP militants operating in the porous border regions.[100] In late 2022, Pakistan's embassy in Kabul came under attack with gunfire wounding a Pakistani security guard, IS-K claims responsibility for the attack, Pakistan asked the attack to be thoroughly probed by the Taliban authorities.[101]

On September 6, 2023, two military posts located close to the Afghanistan border in Chitral district's area of Kalash were attacked by Pakistani Taliban (TTP) in which two Pakistani soldiers and twelve militants were killed.[102][103] Pakistan claimed that TTP militants crossed the Afghan border to attack those posts within Pakistan. A firing incident occurred near Torkham border crossing resulted in closure of the border. Pakistan claimed that Afghanistan is building unlawful structures on the border which violates Pakistan's territorial sovereignty.[104][105] On October 6, 2023, Pakistan announced the deportation of 1.7 million undocumented Afghan immigrants. A deadline of Nov.1 was announced for people to leave or face forcible expulsion.[106][107] Around 1.3 million Afghans are registered refugees in Pakistan and 880,000 more have legal status to remain, according to the latest United Nations figures.[108] On November 10, 2023, Pakistan announced that it has extended the legal residence status of registered Afghan refugees till December 31, 2023, who have Proof of Registration, or PoR, cards[109] issued by the Government of Pakistan.[110]

Afghan-Pak Transit Trade Agreement

[edit]
Main article: Afghanistan–Pakistan Transit Trade Agreement

In July 2010, a Memorandum of understanding (MoU) was reached between Pakistan and Afghanistan for the Afghan-Pak Transit Trade Agreement (APTTA), which was observed by U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton. The two states also signed an MoU for the construction of rail tracks in Afghanistan to connect with Pakistan Railways (PR),[111] which has been in the making since at least 2005.[112] In October 2010, the landmark APTTA agreement was signed by Pakistani Commerce Minister Makhdoom Amin Fahim and Anwar ul-Haq Ahady, Afghan Ministry of Commerce. The ceremony was attended by Richard Holbrooke, U.S. Special Representative for Afghanistan and Pakistan, and a number of foreign ambassadors, Afghan parliamentarians and senior officials.[21] The APTTA allows Afghan trucks to drive inside Pakistan to the Wagah border with India, and also to the port cities of Karachi and Gwadar.[113]

In November 2010, the two states formed a joint chamber of commerce to expand trade relations and solve the problems traders face.[114][115] The APTTA agreement has taken effect after several Afghan trucks delivered fruits from Afghanistan to the Wagah border with India in June 2011. With the completion of the APTTA, the United States and other NATO states are planning to revive the ancient Silk Road. This is to help the local economies of Afghanistan and Pakistan by connecting South Asia with Central Asia and the Middle East.[116] The APTTA is intended to improve trade between the two countries but Pakistan often delays Afghan-bound containers,[117] especially after the 2011 NATO attack in Pakistan.

In July 2012, Afghanistan and Pakistan agreed to extend APTTA to Tajikistan in what will be the first step for the establishment of a North–South trade corridor. The proposed agreement will provide facilities to Tajikistan to use Pakistan's Gwadar and Karachi ports for its imports and exports while Pakistan will enjoy trade with Tajikistan under terms similar to the transit arrangement with Afghanistan.[118] Trade between Pakistan and Afghanistan is expected to reach $5 billion by 2015.[119] Afghanistan's economy is one of the fastest growing economies in the world. A 2012 World Bank report added, "In contrast, Afghanistan’s economy grew robustly by about 11 percent mostly due to a good harvest."[120]

Towards the end of the same year, both the governments of Afghanistan and Pakistan drafted plans to talk to the Taliban.[121]

Cooperation between the two countries includes possible defence cooperation[122][123] and intelligence sharing as well as further enhancing the two-way trade and abolishment of visas for diplomats from the two nations.[124][119]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Ahmad, Jibran (29 October 2021). "Afghan Taliban appoint new envoy to run embassy in neighbouring Pakistan". Reuters. Retrieved 26 April 2022. Mohammad Shokaib was appointed first secretary or charge d'affaires at the embassy
  2. ^ "Russia Latest Country to Establish Diplomatic Ties With Taliban". Voice of America. 9 April 2022. Retrieved 26 April 2022. In recent months, at least four countries — China, Pakistan, Russia and Turkmenistan — have accredited Taliban-appointed diplomats
  3. ^ "General Assembly, 2nd session : 92nd plenary meeting, held in the General Assembly Hall at Flushing Meadow, New York, on Tuesday". 30 September 1947.
  4. ^ a b Qassem, Dr Ahmad Shayeq (28 March 2013). Afghanistan's Political Stability: A Dream Unrealised. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 9781409499428.
  5. ^ Qassem, Dr Ahmad Shayeq (28 March 2013). Afghanistan's Political Stability: A Dream Unrealised. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 9781409499428.
  6. ^ Sohail, Massarrat (1991). Partition and Anglo-Pakistan relations, 1947–51. Vanguard. ISBN 9789694020570.
  7. ^ Misra, Kashi Prasad (1981). Afghanistan in crisis. Croom Helm. ISBN 9780709917274.
  8. ^ a b Weisburd, Arthur Mark (25 April 1997). Use of Force: The Practice of States Since World War II. Penn State Press. ISBN 978-0271043012.
  9. ^ "Pakistan's Support for the Taliban: What to Know". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 27 July 2023.
  10. ^ Shaikh, Najmuddin A. (27 December 2011). "What does Pakistan want in Afghanistan?". The Express Tribune. Retrieved 12 July 2014.
  11. ^ Mashal, Mujib (2 December 2012). "Can Afghanistan Sort Out Its Cross-Border Water Issues?". Time. Retrieved 12 July 2014.
  12. ^ International, Asian News (27 November 2022). "Border tensions between Afghanistan, Pakistan intensify". The Siasat Daily. Retrieved 24 August 2023.
  13. ^ "The Durand Line". education.nationalgeographic.org. Retrieved 5 September 2023.
  14. ^ Ayaz, Gul. "Taliban accuse Pakistan of sowing 'distrust' between Afghanistan, China". VOA. Retrieved 31 May 2024.
  15. ^ Malik, Hafeez (27 July 2016). Soviet-Pakistan Relations and Post-Soviet Dynamics, 1947–92. Springer. ISBN 9781349105731.
  16. ^ Hussain, S. Iftikhar (2000). Some major Pukhtoon tribes along the Pak-Afghan border. Area Study Centre.
  17. ^ Hilali, A. Z. (5 July 2017). US-Pakistan Relationship: Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781351876230.
  18. ^ Crews, Robert D. (2015). Afghan Modern: The History of a Global Nation. Harvard University Press. p. 182. ISBN 9780674286092.
  19. ^ Fair, C. Christine; Watson, Sarah J. (18 February 2015). Pakistan's Enduring Challenges. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 9780812246902.
  20. ^ "Karzai accuses Pakistan of 'double game' over militants". BBC News. 3 October 2011. Retrieved 28 June 2017. In his televised address on Monday, [Mr Karzai] described Afghanistan and Pakistan as 'inseparable brothers' but added: 'Despite all destructions, calamities and problems, faced by both our country and Pakistan, a double-standard game and [the use of] terrorism as a tool continued. [...]'
  21. ^ a b Muzhary, Fazal (October 28, 2010). "Landmark trade pact inked with Pakistan". Kabul, Afghanistan: Pajhwok Afghan News (PAN). Archived from the original on March 13, 2012. Retrieved October 28, 2010.
  22. ^ Gul, Ayaz (5 April 2017). "Afghanistan Reacts Angrily to Pakistan's Fencing of Border". VOA News. Retrieved 6 September 2021.
  23. ^ "Pakistan wants millions of Afghan refugees gone. It's a humanitarian crisis waiting to happen". Public Radio International. Retrieved 26 February 2018.
  24. ^ The Strategic Implications of Change in the Soviet Union. Brassey's for the International Institute for Strategic Studies. 1990. ISBN 9780080407159.
  25. ^ Lindsey, George; Spanger, Hans-Joachim; Sirriyeh, Hussein; Gambles, Ian; Studies, International Institute for Strategic; Wittmann, Klaus; Ispahani, Mahnaz Z.; Dziedzic, Michael J.; Kunzendorff, Volker (1989). The impact of strategic defences on European-American relations in the 1990s. Brassey's for the International Institute for Strategic Studies. ISBN 9780080373379.
  26. ^ Constable, Pamela; Khan, Haq Nawaz (3 March 2017). "Pakistan targets Afghan Pashtuns and refugees in anti-terrorism crackdown". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 26 February 2018.
  27. ^ "Pakistan announces big crackdown on migrants in the country illegally, including 1.7 million Afghans". AP News. 3 October 2023. Retrieved 25 October 2023.
  28. ^ "Country Profile: Afghanistan" (PDF). Washington, DC: Library of Congress Country Studies on Afghanistan. August 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 February 2005. Retrieved 3 September 2010.
  29. ^ Nath, Samir (2002). Dictionary of Vedanta. Sarup & Sons. p. 273. ISBN 978-81-7890-056-8. Retrieved 10 September 2010.
  30. ^ "Afghan and Afghanistan". Abdul Hai Habibi. alamahabibi.com. 1969. Retrieved 24 October 2010.
  31. ^ Smith, Cynthia (August 2004). "A Selection of Historical Maps of Afghanistan – The Durand Line". United States: Library of Congress. Archived from the original on 6 February 2011. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
  32. ^ Electoral History of NWFP (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 August 2013.
  33. ^ Brecher, Michael (25 July 2017). A Century of Crisis and Conflict in the International System: Theory and Evidence: Intellectual Odyssey III. Springer. ISBN 9783319571560. Retrieved 25 July 2017.
  34. ^ a b Grare, Frédéric (2006). "Carnegie Papers – Pakistan-Afghanistan Relations in the Post-9/11 Era" (PDF). carnegieendowment.org. Retrieved 3 September 2010.
  35. ^ a b "Pashtunistan".
  36. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 February 2017. Retrieved 11 August 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  37. ^ "[CHRONOLOGY, 9 OCTOBER 1952 - 22 OCTOBER 1952]". Chronology of International Events and Documents. 8 (20): 613–643. 24 October 2023. JSTOR 40545330.
  38. ^ "U.S-Pakistan Military Cooperation".
  39. ^ "Breakthrough or Breakdown? U.S.-Pakistan Military Alliance of 1954 | Page 3 of 6". 22 November 2011.
  40. ^ Quiet Diplomacy: From Cairo to Tokyo in the Twilight of Imperialism by Armin Henry Meyer
  41. ^ Conflict in Afghanistan: A Historical Encyclopedia by Frank Clements, Ludwig W. Adamec
  42. ^ Himayatullah (2015). "PAKISTAN NATIONAL AWAMI PARTY: NATURE AND DIRECTION OF POLITICS" (PDF). Quaid-i-Azam University Islamabad: Department of History.
  43. ^ Khurshid Mahmud Kasuri, Neither a Hawk Nor a Dove: An Insider's Account of Pakistan's Foreign Relations Including Details of the Kashmir Framework, Oxford University Press (2015), chapter 6
  44. ^ Jonathan L. Lee "Afghanistan: A History from 1260 to the Present", page 132, page 134, page 124
  45. ^ Hafizullah Emadi,Dynamics of Political Development in Afghanistan: The British, Russian, and American Invasions, Springer (2010), p. 61
  46. ^ Mohammad Ayub Khan, Diaries of Field Marshal Mohammad Ayub Khan, 1966–1972, Oxford University Press (2007), p. 47
  47. ^ A.Z. Hilali, US-Pakistan Relationship: Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, Taylor & Francis (2017), p. 100
  48. ^ Owen L. Sirrs, Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence Directorate: Covert Action and Internal Operations, Routledge (2016), p. 119
  49. ^ "Kabul sought Pakistan-Afghanistan merger in 1954" (28 January 2017), The News. Retrieved 21 April 2019.
  50. ^ Muḥammad Shamsuddīn Ṣiddīqī, The Geo-political imperatives of Pakistan, Area Study Centre (Central Asia), University of Peshawar (1990), p. 26
  51. ^ Usman Khalid (ed.), Authentic voices of South Asia, London Institute of South Asia (2005), p. 315
  52. ^ Sufi, Juma Khan (19 June 2020). درمسال له خټې (Second ed.). Islamabad: Sufi Publications. p. 748. ISBN 978-969-23001-3-1.
  53. ^ "ASIANOW - Asiaweek".
  54. ^ "Ahmad Shah Masoud". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 18 December 2012. Masoud, an ethnic Tajik, studied engineering before the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan and then moved to Pakistan for military training.
  55. ^ Craggs, Ryan (1 February 2012). "Taliban Will Control Afghanistan With Support From Pakistan, Says Leaked Report". Huffington Post. Retrieved 18 December 2012.
  56. ^ "START | Terrorist Organization Profile". Start.umd.edu. 1 March 2008. Retrieved 21 June 2010.
  57. ^ a b "START | Terrorist Organization Profile". Start.umd.edu.
  58. ^ "Pakistan Knocking at the Nuclear Door". Time. 30 March 1987. Archived from the original on 9 January 2011. Retrieved 24 May 2010.
  59. ^ Hussain, Rizwan (2005). Pakistan and the Emergence of Islamic Militancy in Afghanistan. Ashgate Pub Ltd. p. 105. ISBN 978-0754644347. Hekmatyar ... had stayed on in Pakistan since 1973 and with Pakistan's incitement, his group started low level operations against the PDPA administration in 1978. Hekmatyar was openly supported by the leaders of the Pakistani Jamaat-i Islami and according to then [Pakistani] Major-General Kamal Matinuddin 'the late President Zia gave him maximum support...'
  60. ^ "Reinforcing the Mujahideen: Origins of Jihadi Manpower". The Jamestown Foundation. 9 May 2006. Retrieved 19 December 2012.
  61. ^ Qassem, A.S. (2009). Afghanistan's Political Stability: A Dream Unrealised. Ashgate. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-7546-7940-0. Retrieved 5 June 2020.
  62. ^ Kaplan, Robert D. (23 August 1989). "How Zia's Death Helped the U.S". The New York Times. Retrieved 24 May 2010.
  63. ^ Pear, Robert (25 June 1989). "F.B.I. Allowed to Investigate Crash That Killed Zia". The New York Times. Retrieved 24 May 2010.
  64. ^ Pakistan Restricts Afghan Refugees by Donatella Lorch for the New York Times. November 16, 1988.
  65. ^ "Taliban". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 18 December 2012.
  66. ^ "Afghan Refugees: Current Status and Future Prospects" (PDF). 26 January 2007. Retrieved 19 December 2012. In 1988, the Soviet Union agreed to withdraw from Afghanistan, and UNHCR and the international assistance community prepared for the massive repatriation of refugees. Large-scale returns did not begin until 1992, however, when the Soviet-installed leader Najibullah was finally forced from power. No sooner had some million and a half refugees returned, however, than Kabul descended into armed disorder as various mujahideen factions began fighting for control of the capital and the surrounding area.
  67. ^ "Afghan Leader Najib Rebounds Solidly After Coup Attempt - CSMonitor.com". The Christian Science Monitor. 15 March 1990.
  68. ^ a b "Post-Soviet Pakistani Interference in Afghanistan: How and Why | Middle East Institute".
  69. ^ a b Maley, William (2009). The Afghanistan wars. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 288. ISBN 978-0-230-21313-5.
  70. ^ Newsday (October 2001). "Taliban massacres outlined for UN". Chicago Tribune.
  71. ^ The Unholy Durand Line, Buffering the Buffer Archived 2012-03-25 at the Wayback Machine by Dr. G. Rauf Roashan. August 11, 2001.
  72. ^ Do the Afghan Taliban and Pakistan get on as well as some think? by Arwin Rahi, Dawn. April 27, 2019.
  73. ^ Pakistan's Ethnic Fault Line by Selig S. Harrison, The Washington Post. May 11, 2009.
  74. ^ "Mullah Omar 'hiding in Pakistan'". BBC News. 17 January 2007. Retrieved 6 September 2021.
  75. ^ "Pakistan rejects Taliban spokesman's claim on Omar". Reuters. 18 January 2007.
  76. ^ "Push launched against Haqqanis in border areas". Pajhwok Afghan News. Archived from the original on 14 May 2012. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
  77. ^ "President Karzai Address to the Nation on Afghanistan's Peace Efforts". The Embassy of Afghanistan in Washington, DC. Archived from the original on 12 October 2011. Retrieved 10 October 2011.
  78. ^ "Panetta: U.S. will pursue Pakistan-based militants". USA Today. September 2011. Retrieved 21 September 2011.
  79. ^ a b "U.S. blames Pakistan agency in Kabul attack". Reuters. 22 September 2011. Archived from the original on 25 September 2011. Retrieved 22 September 2011.
  80. ^ "Pakistan condemns US comments about spy agency". Associated Press. 23 September 2011. Archived from the original on 27 July 2013. Retrieved 23 September 2011.
  81. ^ "U.S. links Pakistan to group it blames for Kabul attack". Reuters. 17 September 2011. Retrieved 21 September 2011.
  82. ^ "Clinton Presses Pakistan to Help Fight Haqqani Insurgent Group". Fox News. 18 September 2011. Retrieved 21 September 2011.
  83. ^ Pakistan a twin brother, talks to go on: Karzai Archived 7 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Pajhwok Afghan News. Sujoy Dhar. October 5, 2011.
  84. ^ Gul, Ayaz. "Deadly Truck Bomb Rocks Kabul". VOA.
  85. ^ Kay, Chris; Najafizada, Eltaf (6 June 2017). "Ghani Says Afghanistan Hit by 'Undeclared War' From Pakistan". Bloomberg. Retrieved 8 June 2017.
  86. ^ "Afghanistan blames Pakistan and Taliban for Kabul blast". Al Jazeera.
  87. ^ Compare: "TTP claiming Peshawar attack is a proof it was planned in Afghanistan: Pak army". Khaama Press. 2 December 2017. Retrieved 25 December 2017. A spokesman for the Pakistani military Gen. Asif Ghafoor has said 'Tehreek-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) claiming the responsibility for the attack is a proof that it was planned by terrorists based in Afghanistan.'
  88. ^ "Afghan leader slams Pakistan over Kabul attacks". Al Jazeera. 11 August 2015. Retrieved 6 September 2021.
  89. ^ Siddiqui, Naveed (5 March 2017). "Afghanistan will never recognise the Durand Line: Hamid Karzai". Retrieved 28 June 2017.
  90. ^ "Deterioration in Pak-Afghan Relations". Pakistan Today. 13 June 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2021.
  91. ^ "NDS and ISI Sign MoU". Tolo news. 17 May 2015.
  92. ^ "ISI, Afghan intelligence in landmark deal". Dawn News. 19 May 2015.
  93. ^ Says, Sana Ullah (16 June 2015). "Pakistani troops cross border into Afghanistan, rescue wounded Afghan soldier". Khaama Press.
  94. ^ "Afghan soldier returns home after treatment in Pakistan". The News. 9 March 2016.
  95. ^ "Afghan soldier returns home after treatment". Express tribune. 30 July 2016.
  96. ^ "Taliban have broken 'the shackles of slavery,' says Pakistan PM Imran Khan". www.independent.co.uk. 17 August 2021.
  97. ^ "Taliban Takeover of Afghanistan Seen as 'Rude Awakening' for Pakistan". VOA.
  98. ^ "Changed situation: On Pakistan's frustration with the Taliban". The Hindu. 20 April 2022.
  99. ^ "Pakistan warns Afghanistan's Taliban not to shelter militants". DW.
  100. ^ Putz, Catherine. "The Taliban's Many Problematic Borders". The Diplomat.
  101. ^ "Pakistani embassy in Kabul attacked, one injured". Reuters.
  102. ^ "Pakistan: Clashes Near Afghan Border Kill 4 Soldiers, 12 'Terrorists'". VOA. 6 September 2023. Retrieved 12 September 2023.
  103. ^ Khan, Iftikhar Shirazi | Murad Ali (6 September 2023). "4 soldiers martyred during operation to repulse terrorists in Chitral's Kalash area: ISPR". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 12 September 2023.
  104. ^ "Main Afghan-Pakistan border crossing closed as forces exchange fire, sources say". Reuters. 6 September 2023. Retrieved 12 September 2023.
  105. ^ Hussain, Abid. "Pakistan says Afghanistan building 'unlawful structures' along tense border". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 12 September 2023.
  106. ^ Shahzad, Asif (6 October 2023). "Pakistan seeks orderly departure of illegal Afghans". Reuters. Retrieved 13 October 2023.
  107. ^ "Pakistan Pledges 'Phased, Orderly' Eviction of Unlawful Afghan Migrants". VOA. 6 October 2023. Retrieved 13 October 2023.
  108. ^ "Government, UNHCR verify 1.3 million Afghan refugees in Pakistan". UNHCR Pakistan. 3 June 2022.
  109. ^ "Proof of Registration Card (PoR)". UNHCR Pakistan. 17 November 2023. Retrieved 17 November 2023.
  110. ^ "Pakistan Extends Stay of 1.4 Million Registered Afghan Refugees". Voice of America. 10 November 2023. Retrieved 17 November 2023.
  111. ^ Kakar, Javed Hamim (7 July 2010). "Pakistan, Afghanistan ink MoU on rail links". Pajhwok Afghan News. Archived from the original on 13 March 2012. Retrieved 12 July 2010.
  112. ^ "Pak-Afghan bus and rail links discussed". Pajhwok Afghan News. 2 July 2005. Retrieved 28 October 2010.
  113. ^ Landler, Mark (18 July 2010). "Afghanistan and Pakistan Sign a Trade Deal, Representing a Thaw in Relations". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 13 June 2013. Retrieved 3 September 2010.
  114. ^ Siddiqui, Abdul Qadir (29 November 2010). "Afghan-Pakistan chamber of commerce set up". Pajhwok Afghan News. Archived from the original on 27 July 2011. Retrieved 10 December 2010.
  115. ^ Siddiqui, Abdul Qadir (5 December 2010). "Pakistan to resolve Afghan traders' problems". Pajhwok Afghan News. Archived from the original on 27 July 2011. Retrieved 10 December 2010.
  116. ^ "Coalition eyes "silk road" to boost Afghan economy".
  117. ^ "Millions of books for Afghan students stuck in Pakistan". Pajhwok Afghan News. Archived from the original on 25 July 2012. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
  118. ^ "Afghan-Pakistan Trade Transit Deal Extended to Tajikistan". The Gazette of Central Asia. Satrapia. 23 July 2012. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
  119. ^ a b "Pakistan to release more Taliban prisoners". Pajhwok Afghan News. 1 December 2012. Retrieved 29 January 2013.
  120. ^ Haseeb, Meena (16 January 2013). "Afghanistan economy growth strong in 2012: World Bank". The Khaama Press News Agency. Khaama Press. Retrieved 12 July 2014.
  121. ^ "Afghanistan, Pakistan Draft Plan for Talks With Taliban". Eltaf Najafizada. Bloomberg.
  122. ^ "Meets Ghani, Abdullah: Gen Raheel offers to train Afghan security forces". The Express Tribune. 7 November 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2014.
  123. ^ Khan, Tahir (5 February 2015). "First group of Afghan army cadets arrives for training at PMA". Express Tribune. Retrieved 7 February 2015.
  124. ^ "Reports: Kabul may consider Pakistan offer". UPI. 29 January 2013. Retrieved 29 January 2013.

Further reading

[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Afghanistan–Pakistan_relations&oldid=1256433427"