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Napoleon I's exile to St. Helena

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Geolocation of Saint Helena Island.

Napoleon I's exile to St. Helena encompasses the final six years of the deposed emperor's life, commencing with his second abdication[note 1] in 1815 and concluding with his military defeat at the Battle of Waterloo and the subsequent Hundred Days.

Upon reaching Rochefort, Napoleon I was unable to travel to the United States as he had wished. The British government had decided to imprison him and deport him to the island of Saint Helena, situated in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, with the intention of ensuring that he could no longer "disturb the peace of the world." He died [fr] there on May 5, 1821.

The final journey

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Napoleon surrendering to the English and boarding one of their ships.
Bonaparte's arrival on Saint Helena Island, engraving by Louis-Yves Queverdo [fr].

Following his abdication on June 22, 1815, Napoleon proceeded to the Atlantic coast, where the French government, under the leadership of Fouché, had arranged for two frigates to facilitate his departure for America. However, the English squadron's blockade of the La Rochelle and Rochefort region effectively prevented him from leaving.[1] On July 15, 1815, Napoleon surrendered to the British forces near the Île d'Aix and was subsequently transported to Torbay and then Plymouth on England's southwest coast aboard the HMS Bellerophon. He assumed the British government would permit him to reside in the English countryside.[2] Upon learning of his deportation to the island of Saint Helena on July 31, Napoleon was transferred on August 7, 1815, to the Northumberland, which took him on a journey lasting two months and one week.[note 2][3]

Saint Helena is a volcanic island situated 1,900 km west of the African continent in the South Atlantic Ocean. With a population of approximately 5,000 to 6,000,[note 3] the island has only three access points to the sea. Its isolation and the steep black cliffs, which range from 200 to 300 meters in height, made it an easily monitorable and defensible location.[4] The island was under the possession of the British East India Company rather than the British state, which had to lease it for this purpose.[note 4]

On October 15, 1815, the Northumberland was anchored off Saint Helena.[6] On the following day, Napoleon disembarked.[2] Those in attendance included the Grand Marshal of the Palace, Henri Gratien Bertrand, and his wife Fanny; General Gourgaud; Emmanuel de Las Cases; General de Montholon and his wife Albine; Louis-Étienne Saint-Denis, also known as the Mameluke Ali; his maître d'hôtel Jean Baptiste Cipriani [fr]; his valet Marchand; and his usher Jean-Noël Santini [fr]. On October 17, Napoleon took temporary residence at The Briars Pavilion, hosted by the Balcombe family, while awaiting the preparation of his permanent detention site at Longwood, which would take seven weeks.[7] Longwood, situated on a plateau, allowed for easier surveillance but was constantly exposed to trade winds, often shrouded in fog and humidity, with sudden alternations between heavy rain and scorching sun. On December 10, 1815, Napoleon finally settled into his final residence under the supervision of the provisional governor, Admiral Cockburn.[8]

Solitude at Longwood

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Anonymous, Fleshy (le ventripotent) life drawing of Napoleon at Longwood, June 5, 1820.

On December 10, 1815, a modest dwelling resembling a farmhouse was installed at Longwood House. Napoleon was under constant surveillance. Initially, Napoleon anticipated that he would be treated as a distinguished guest. However, he soon realized that this was not the case and was subjected to numerous humiliations at the hands of Hudson Lowe, the new governor of the island, whom he first met on April 17, 1816.[9] Tensions emerged between Napoleon and Lowe. According to instructions from the British government, Lowe declined to acknowledge Napoleon as an emperor or even as "General Bonaparte." Instead, he addressed him as Napoleon Bonaparte, deleting the "u" in Buonaparte, Napoleon's original name.[10]

His weapons were confiscated, his correspondence was opened (which prompted the French to devise strategies and enlist accomplices to send uncensored letters), and his freedom of movement was severely restricted. This forced exile intensified emotional distress and facilitated the emergence of disruptive behaviors among those who shared his circumstances, with the oppressive heat and humidity exacerbating the situation. The Emperor reflected on his life and reign, dictating his memoirs to his companions in misfortune. Meanwhile, travelers stopping over at Saint Helena persistently sought authorization from Napoleon's guards to catch a glimpse of the captive.[11] On July 18, 1816, foreign commissioners [fr] arrived on the island, charged with reporting back to their respective courts on the situation.[12] By the end of 1816, Emmanuel de Las Cases departed from Saint Helena (he would subsequently publish The Memorial of Saint Helena in 1823).

In the opening months of 1818, Gourgaud was compelled to take his leave of Longwood, having become estranged from Napoleon. Subsequently, in July 1819, his mistress, Madame de Montholon,[13] returned to Europe with all her children. As Longwood gradually emptied, the atmosphere became anticipation and a pervasive sense of lethargy. In September 1819, a small cohort of new companions, predominantly Corsican individuals relocated from Italy by the Bonaparte family, arrived, briefly disrupting the prevailing monotony. However, the newcomers did not meet Napoleon's expectations or his other companions.

The factors of boredom, the curfew, and the unhealthy climate led Napoleon to gradually limit his walks, whether on foot, horseback, or by carriage. Subsequently, he relocated entirely to Longwood, where he enforced imperial etiquette and maintained a high standard of living, estimated at 19,000 pounds per year. This was later reduced by half by the governor.[14] He spent the majority of his time in his bedroom or bathroom, rather than in his study, contributing to his increasing obesity. Notwithstanding the circumstances, the former emperor clung to the possibility that a shift in the British government might facilitate his ability to reside in peace in England or join his brother Joseph in America. He was gratified by the support of the Whig Party, which regarded him as a successor to the Revolution. Furthermore, he was no longer perceived as a threat by the Holy Alliance. However, Napoleon's aspirations were dashed following the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in November 1818, when the Allies resolved to detain him on the island until his demise. Upon learning of this decision, his spirits plummeted.[15]

The death of Napoleon

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St. Helena - Death of Napoleon. Painting by Steuben.
See also: Death of Napoleon I and Retour des cendres

In his final years, Napoleon was largely inactive, though he retained a keen interest in his customary reading. He remained confined to Longwood for an extended period, spanning multiple months. His physician, François Antommarchi, recommended that he receive more fresh air, a suggestion that Napoleon disregarded due to his negative opinion of the doctor. He is quoted as saying, "One has the right to be ignorant, but not to lack heart." Antommarchi consulted with Hudson Lowe, who dismissed Napoleon's condition as merely a "diplomatic illness",[16] despite the emperor's frequent complaints of sharp pain in his right side. Antommarchi diagnosed only simple constipation and prescribed a high dosage of calomel, a potent laxative that exacerbated Napoleon's existing gastric ulcer.[17] On April 11, 1821, Napoleon, confined to bed, began dictating his will to General de Montholon.[note 5] He also added codicils related to events from his life that resurfaced in his memory. He continued until April 27, after which he descended into agony. Suffering from a stomach ulcer,[19] Napoleon refused assistance from British doctors. After eight days of agony, he took his last breath on May 5, 1821, at 5:49 p.m. His final words were reportedly "Army", "Head of the Army", or possibly "Josephine."

The autopsy, performed on May 6, 1821, has been the subject of considerable controversy ever since, due to the multiplicity of reports, both official and unofficial, including at least three distinct versions from Dr. Antommarchi alone.[20]

Napoleon was interred on May 9 in the Valley of the Geranium, as per his final instructions, if his remains were not repatriated to Europe. His tomb was inscribed with no epithet, as Governor Lowe forbade any mention of either "Napoleon" or "Emperor Napoleon." Meanwhile, his death certificate, independently recorded in the parish register of St. James in Jamestown, the capital of Saint Helena, listed him on the same date as "Napoleon Buonaparte, late Emperor of France."[note 6]

In 1840, at the behest of Louis-Philippe I and with the assent of the British, Napoleon's mortal remains were repatriated to France by Prince de Joinville, the son of King Louis-Philippe I. He now rests at Les Invalides.[21] In 1940, the remains of Napoleon II, son of Napoleon I, were transferred to Les Invalides at the behest of Adolf Hitler. Longwood was ceded to France in 1858 by Queen Victoria under the rule of Napoleon III and is now part of the French domains on Saint Helena.

St. Helena - Imperial residence at Longwood in 1858.
Sainte-Hélène - Jamestown Harbour.
Longwood Old House in 1913.

Documentary

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A docu-drama, Napoléon, l'exilé de Sainte-Hélène [fr] is dedicated to Napoleon I's exile on Saint Helena. It is part of the Secrets d'Histoire [fr] programme, presented by Stéphane Bern.[22]

The broadcast, which marked the bicentennial of Napoleon's death [fr], was aired on France 3 on April 19, 2021.[22]

Notes

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  1. ^ First abdication of Napoleon I [fr]
  2. ^ Several witnesses have documented the journey, notably Emmanuel de Las Cases in The Memorial of Saint Helena and Denzil Ibbetson, the British commissary officer responsible for military supplies, who kept a journal that remained unpublished until it was put up for sale in late 2010.
  3. ^ During Napoleon's exile, the island's population experienced a significant increase, reaching twice its original size. The Saint Helena garrison also underwent fluctuations, with numbers ranging between 1,500 and 2,000 men across different periods.
  4. ^ "A provisional transfer agreement was hastily concluded on July 26, 1815, between the Company and the London government. While the former retained the island’s 'commercial' management, its civil and military administration was transferred to the latter."[5]
  5. ^ This document consists of three parts: The political will, featuring famous phrases like, "I desire that my ashes rest on the banks of the Seine, among the French people whom I have loved so much... I die prematurely, murdered by the English oligarchy and its hireling." The personal will, which allocates 7 million francs to his relatives and companions. Finally, nearly 204 million francs, according to an amount Napoleon estimated to have saved from his civil list—28 million per year, meant to be distributed to cities and all soldiers of the Grand Army. The royal government refused this, leading to numerous lawsuits filed by these heirs until 1857, when Napoleon III established the Saint Helena medal and a small pension for all of the Emperor's former comrades-in-arms.[18]
  6. ^ There are two versions of Napoleon's death certificate: the original belongs to the St. Helena Archives archive and a later, more carefully written copy is shown on the British Librairy website in London archive.

References

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  1. ^ Lentz, Thierry (2017). Napoléon en 100 questions [Napoleon in 100 questions] (in French). Tallandier. p. 154.
  2. ^ a b Lentz, Thierry (2013). Napoléon [Napoleon] (in French). Éditions La Boétie. p. 82.
  3. ^ Boudon, Jacques-Olivier (2004). Napoléon Ier et son temps [Napoleon I and his time] (in French). Vuibert. p. 247.
  4. ^ Macé & Lentz 2021, p. 10
  5. ^ Macé, Jacques; Lentz, Thierry (2021). La mort de Napoléon [Napoleon's death] (in French). Place des éditeurs. p. 11.
  6. ^ Las Cases, Emmanuel (1842). Mémorial de Sainte-Hélène [The Memorial of Saint Helena] (in French). Vol. I. Paris: Ernest Bourdin. p. 132.
  7. ^ Macé & Lentz 2021, p. 11
  8. ^ Benson, Mark (October 22, 2019). "Sailing into exile". Archived from the original on May 5, 2024.
  9. ^ Bonnel, Ulane (1971). Sainte-Hélène, terre d'exil [St. Helena, land of exile] (in French). Hachette. p. 98.
  10. ^ Ganière, Paul (1998). Napoléon à Sainte-Hélène [Napoleon on St. Helena] (in French). Perrin. p. 1998.
  11. ^ "Le journal du pasteur Latrobe" [Pastor Latrobe's diary]. L'autre Sainte-Hélène (in French). Archived from the original on February 25, 2024. Retrieved May 21, 2014.
  12. ^ Las Cases 1842, p. 714
  13. ^ Macé & Lentz 2021, p. 78
  14. ^ Bonnel 1971, p. 99
  15. ^ Lentz, Thierry; Macé, Jacques (2009). La mort de Napoléon : Mythes, légendes et mystères [Napoleon's death: Myths, legends and mysteries] (in French). Librairie Académique Perrin. p. 15.
  16. ^ Markel, Howard (August 15, 2022). "How Napoleon's death in exile became a controversial mystery". PBS. Archived from the original on September 27, 2024.
  17. ^ "The death of Napoleon Bonaparte – archive, 1821". The Guardian. July 7, 2021. Archived from the original on May 5, 2024.
  18. ^ Lemaire, Jean (1975). Le Testament de Napoléon. Un étonnant destin, 1821-1857 [Le Testament de Napoléon. An astonishing destiny, 1821-1857] (in French). Plon.
  19. ^ Lugli, Alessandro; Carneiro, Fatima; Dawson, Heather; Fléjou, Jean-François; Kirsch, Richard; van der Post, Rachel S; Vieth, Michael; Svrcek, Magali (2021). "The gastric disease of Napoleon Bonaparte: brief report for the bicentenary of Napoleon's death on St. Helena in 1821". Virchows Arch. 479 (5): 1055–1060. doi:10.1007/s00428-021-03061-1. PMC 8572813. PMID 33661330.
  20. ^ Benhamou, Albert (2010). L'autre Sainte-Hélène : la captivité, la maladie, la mort, et les médecins autour de Napoléon [The other St. Helena: captivity, illness, death and the doctors around Napoleon] (in French).
  21. ^ "Napoleon's body is definitely at Invalides!". Archived from the original on November 12, 2020.
  22. ^ a b Bonnet, Dominique (April 19, 2021). "Napoléon, un premier tombeau sur l'île de Sainte-Hélène" [Napoleon's first tomb on the island of St. Helena]. Paris Match (in French). Archived from the original on May 18, 2022.

Bibliography

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  • Tulard, Jean (1981). Napoléon à Sainte-Hélène [Napoleon on St. Helena] (in French). Bouquins.
  • Ganière, Paul (1957). Napoléon à Sainte-Hélène [Napoleon on St. Helena] (in French). Amiot-Dumont.
  • Martineau, Gilbert (1981). Napoléon à Sainte-Hélène 1815-1821 [Napoleon on St. Helena 1815-1821] (in French). Éditions Tallandier.
  • Kauffmann, Jean-Paul (1997). La Chambre noire de Longwood [Longwood's Dark Room] (in French). Éditions de la Table ronde.
  • Boudon, Jacques-Olivier (2000). Napoléon à Sainte-Hélène : de l'exil à la légende [Napoleon on St. Helena: from exile to legend] (in French). Éditions Fides.
  • Chevallier, Bernard; Dancoisne-Martineau, Michel; Lentz, Thierry (2005). Napoléon à Sainte-Hélène : daSainte-Hélène. Île de mémoiree l'exil à la légende [Sainte-Hélène. Island of memory] (in French). Fayard. ISBN 978-2213626451.
  • Dancoisne-Martineau, Michel (2011). Chroniques de Sainte-Hélène : Atlantique sud [Saint Helena Chronicles: South Atlantic] (in French). Perrin.
  • Dumont, Hervé. Napoléon, l'épopée en 1000 films : Cinéma et Télévision de 1897 à 2015 [Napoleon, the epic in 1000 films: Cinema and Television from 1897 to 2015] (in French).
  • Vial, Charles-Éloi (2018). Napoléon à Sainte-Hélène : l'encre de l'exil [Napoleon on St. Helena: the ink of exile] (in French). Paris: Perrin. ISBN 978-2-262-06680-2.
  • Branda, Pierre (2021). Napoléon à Sainte-Hélène [Napoleon on St. Helena] (in French). Paris: Perrin. ISBN 978-2-262-06995-7.
  • Jourquin, Jacques (2021). La dernière passion de Napoléon. La bibliothèque de Saint-Hélène [Napoleon's last passion. The Saint-Helena library] (in French). Passés / Composés. ISBN 978-2-379-33732-1.

FIlmography

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In his study of representations of the emperor on screen, Hervé Dumont [fr] notes that directors of films dealing with this period are fascinated by the ruler's twilight, employing either an adequate or a freer vision. The majority of cinematic productions, including those in the English language, portray Hudson Lowe in a negative light.

Exile is also addressed in Sacha Guitry's Napoléon (1955) and Yves Simoneau's Napoléon (2002). Several unfinished film projects focused specifically on exile: Charles Chaplin's Return from St. Helena (1937), André Berthomieu's Saint-Hélène (1939), Jean Delannoy's Napoléon à Saint-Hélène (1960), Julien Duvivier's Sainte-Hélène (1961) and Patrice Chéreau's The Master of Longwood or Betsy et l'empereur (2009).

Documentaries

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