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Mount Taranaki

Coordinates: 39°17′47″S 174°03′53″E / 39.29639°S 174.06472°E / -39.29639; 174.06472
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(Redirected from Mount Taranaki/Egmont)

Mount Taranaki
  • Taranaki Maunga
  • Mount Egmont
View of Mount Taranaki from Stratford, showing Fanthams Peak on the southern flank
Highest point
Elevation2,518 m (8,261 ft)
Prominence2,308 m (7,572 ft)[1]
ListingUltra
New Zealand #65
Coordinates39°17′47″S 174°03′53″E / 39.29639°S 174.06472°E / -39.29639; 174.06472
Geography
Mount Taranaki is located in New Zealand
Mount Taranaki
Mount Taranaki
North Island, New Zealand
Topo mapNZMS 169 Egmont National Park
Geology
Rock age135 ka
Mountain typeStratovolcano
Last eruption1854
Climbing
First ascentErnst Dieffenbach & James Heberly, 1839[2][3]
Easiest routeMount Taranaki Summit Track (trail)[4]
Map
Taranaki andesite (red shading) in centre of map. The surrounding debris and lahar fields are not shown although they include the green forested area on the map that surround Mount Taranaki and the Pouakai Range and have reached the sea in all directions on the Taranaki peninsula except where blocked by the Pouakai Range. To its north are the older andesitic volcanoes of Pouakai and Kaitake. Clicking on the map enlarges it, and enables panning and mouseover of volcano name/wikilink and ages before present. Key for the volcanics that are shown with panning is:   basalt (shades of brown/orange),   monogenetic basalts,
  undifferentiated basalts of the Tangihua Complex in Northland Allochthon,
  arc basalts,   arc ring basalts,
  dacite,
  andesite (shades of red),   basaltic andesite,
  rhyolite, (ignimbrite is lighter shades of violet),
and   plutonic. White shading is selected caldera features.

Mount Taranaki (Māori: Taranaki Maunga, also known as Mount Egmont) is a dormant stratovolcano in the Taranaki region on the west coast of New Zealand's North Island.[5][6] At 2,518 metres (8,261 ft), it is the second highest mountain in the North Island, after Mount Ruapehu. It has a secondary cone, Fanthams Peak (Māori: Panitahi), 1,966 metres (6,450 ft), on its south side.[7]

Name

[edit]

The name Taranaki is from the Māori language. The mountain was named after Rua Taranaki, the first ancestor of the iwi (tribe) called Taranaki, one of several iwi in the region.[8] The Māori word tara means mountain peak, and naki may come from ngaki, meaning "clear of vegetation."[9] It was also named Pukehaupapa ("ice mountain") and Pukeonaki ("hill of Naki") by iwi who lived in the region in "ancient times".[9][10][11]

Captain Cook named it Mount Egmont on 11 January 1770 after John Perceval, 2nd Earl of Egmont,[12] a former First Lord of the Admiralty who had supported the concept of an oceanic search for Terra Australis Incognita. Cook described it as "of a prodigious height and its top cover'd with everlasting snow," surrounded by a "flat country ... which afforded a very good aspect, being clothed with wood and verdure".[13]

When the French explorer Marc-Joseph Marion du Fresne saw the mountain on 25 March 1772 he named it Pic Mascarin. He was unaware of Cook's earlier visit.[14]

It appeared as Mount Egmont on maps until 29 May 1986, when the name officially became "Mount Taranaki or Mount Egmont"[15] following a decision by the Minister of Lands, Koro Wētere.[16][17] The Egmont name still applies to the national park that surrounds the peak and geologists still refer to the peak as the Egmont Volcano.[18]

As part of the Treaty of Waitangi settlement with Ngā Iwi o Taranaki, a group of tribes in the region,[a] the mountain will be officially named Taranaki Maunga, and will be the first natural geographic feature with an official name in Māori, rather than English.[19][20] The settlement was initialled on 31 March 2023, and has been ratified by the iwi of Taranaki.[21][22]

Some iwi in the region had referred to the mountain as Taranaki Mounga rather than Taranaki Maunga, per the local Māori dialect.[23]

Geology

[edit]

Mount Taranaki is situated in the sedimentary Taranaki Basin and is part of the Taranaki Volcanic Lineament which has had a 3 cm/year (1.2 in/year) north to south migration over the last 1.75 million years.[24]: 458–9  A Wadati–Benioff zone exists at about 200 km (120 mi) depth and the volcano's magma has the geochemical features of an arc volcano.[25]: 2  Under the volcano itself there is high heat flow with only about 10 km (6.2 mi) crustal thickness although this rapidly normalises for continental crust to 35 km (22 mi) east of the volcano and 25 km (16 mi) to the west.[25]: 2–3 

Volcanic activity

[edit]

Taranaki is geologically young, having commenced activity approximately 135,000 years ago. The most recent volcanic activity was the production of a lava dome in the crater and its collapse down the side of the mountain in the 1850s or 1860s.[26][27] Between 1755 and 1800, an eruption sent a pyroclastic flow down the mountain's northeast flanks,[28] and a moderate ash eruption occurred about 1755, of the size of Ruapehu's activity in 1995/1996. The last major eruption occurred around 1655. Recent research has shown that over the last 9,000 years minor eruptions have occurred roughly every 90 years on average, with major eruptions every 500 years.[29] Some of these eruptions may have occurred with very brief warning, of only days or less.[25]: 1, 14–18 

Hazards

[edit]
Remains from a lahar at Taranaki

Taranaki is unusual in that it has experienced at least five of its major eruptions by the method of cone collapse. Few volcanoes have undergone more than one cone collapse. The vast volume of material involved in these collapses is reflected in the extensive ring plain[29] surrounding the volcano. There is also evidence of lahars being a common result of eruption. The major collapse cycles have a potential maximum size of collapse of 7.9 km3 (1.9 cu mi) every 30,000 to 35,000 years.[24]: 473  Such collapse debris fields have been found up to 5–6 km (3.1–3.7 mi) beyound the coast.[24]: 465  Another major edifice collapse is expected to occur within 16,200 years.[24]: 473 

Much of the region is at risk from lahars, which have reached the eastern coast.[24]: 466  A volcanic event is not necessary for a lahar: even earthquakes combined with heavy rain or snow could dislodge vast quantities of unstable layers resting on steep slopes. Many farmers live in the paths of such possible destructive events.

Although volcanic eruptions are notoriously chaotic in their frequency, some scientists warn that a large eruption is "overdue". Research from Massey University indicates that significant seismic activity from the local faults is likely again in the next 50 years and such might be permissive to an eruption. What ever in the next 50 years, the probability of at least one eruption is between 33% and 42%.[24]: 473  Prevailing winds would probably blow ash east, covering much of the North Island, and disrupting air routes, power transmission lines and local water supplies.[30]

Older volcanoes in the area

[edit]
From New Plymouth

Mount Taranaki is one of four closely associated Quaternary volcanoes in Taranaki province that have erupted from andesite magmas that have not extensively assimilated enriched crust unlike the cone volcanos of the North Island Volcanic Plateau.[29] It sits on the remains of three older volcanic complexes that lie to the northwest. The Indo-Australian Plate is slowly moving relative to the magma source that feeds these volcanoes. This trend is reflected in Fanthams Peak, the newer secondary cone on the southeast side of Taranaki and named after Fanny Fantham who was the first European woman to climb the peak in 1887.[31]

The oldest volcanic remnants consist of a series of lava plugs: Paritutu Rock (156 metres), which forms part of New Plymouth's harbour, and the Sugar Loaf Islands close offshore. These have been dated at 1.75 million years.[24]: 459 

On the coast, 15 kilometres southwest of New Plymouth is the Kaitake Range (682 metres), last active over 500,000 years ago.[24]: 459 

Nearest to Taranaki is the Pouakai Range. Pouakai may have originated around the same time as Kaitake but remained active until about 210,000 years ago.[24]: 459  Much of Pouakai's large ring plain was obliterated by the Egmont Volcano, the hills near Eltham being the only remnant to the south.[26]

Climate

[edit]
Climate data for North Egmont, elevation 955 m (3,133 ft), (1981–2010)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 16.8
(62.2) 		17.2
(63.0) 		15.3
(59.5) 		13.1
(55.6) 		10.5
(50.9) 		8.0
(46.4) 		7.3
(45.1) 		7.8
(46.0) 		9.0
(48.2) 		10.8
(51.4) 		12.9
(55.2) 		14.8
(58.6) 		12.0
(53.5)
Daily mean °C (°F) 12.7
(54.9) 		13.2
(55.8) 		11.6
(52.9) 		9.5
(49.1) 		7.4
(45.3) 		5.2
(41.4) 		4.4
(39.9) 		4.8
(40.6) 		5.8
(42.4) 		7.2
(45.0) 		9.2
(48.6) 		11.0
(51.8) 		8.5
(47.3)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 8.7
(47.7) 		9.3
(48.7) 		7.8
(46.0) 		6.0
(42.8) 		4.2
(39.6) 		2.4
(36.3) 		1.6
(34.9) 		1.8
(35.2) 		2.6
(36.7) 		3.7
(38.7) 		5.5
(41.9) 		7.3
(45.1) 		5.1
(41.1)
Average rainfall mm (inches) 456.8
(17.98) 		380.8
(14.99) 		432.0
(17.01) 		480.2
(18.91) 		603.1
(23.74) 		653.7
(25.74) 		697.6
(27.46) 		694.8
(27.35) 		675.7
(26.60) 		809.2
(31.86) 		555.4
(21.87) 		589.2
(23.20) 		7,028.5
(276.71)
Source: NIWA[32]
Climate data for Stratford Mtn House, elevation 846 m (2,776 ft), (1981–2010)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 18.0
(64.4) 		18.4
(65.1) 		15.8
(60.4) 		12.5
(54.5) 		10.1
(50.2) 		7.6
(45.7) 		6.7
(44.1) 		7.6
(45.7) 		9.4
(48.9) 		11.7
(53.1) 		13.7
(56.7) 		16.2
(61.2) 		12.3
(54.2)
Daily mean °C (°F) 13.0
(55.4) 		13.5
(56.3) 		11.6
(52.9) 		8.9
(48.0) 		7.0
(44.6) 		4.7
(40.5) 		4.0
(39.2) 		4.6
(40.3) 		6.0
(42.8) 		7.6
(45.7) 		9.3
(48.7) 		11.6
(52.9) 		8.5
(47.3)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 8.0
(46.4) 		8.7
(47.7) 		7.4
(45.3) 		5.3
(41.5) 		3.9
(39.0) 		1.8
(35.2) 		1.2
(34.2) 		1.6
(34.9) 		2.6
(36.7) 		3.6
(38.5) 		4.9
(40.8) 		7.0
(44.6) 		4.7
(40.4)
Average rainfall mm (inches) 376.1
(14.81) 		284.2
(11.19) 		384.3
(15.13) 		495.4
(19.50) 		651.1
(25.63) 		573.6
(22.58) 		688.3
(27.10) 		595.5
(23.44) 		572.0
(22.52) 		542.4
(21.35) 		437.2
(17.21) 		480.6
(18.92) 		6,080.7
(239.38)
Source: NIWA[33]

Māori mythology

[edit]
Taranaki at daybreak 2008

According to Māori mythology,[34] Taranaki once resided in the middle of the North Island, with all the other New Zealand volcanoes. The beautiful Pihanga was coveted by all the mountains, and a great battle broke out between them. Tongariro eventually won the day,[35] inflicted great wounds on the side of Taranaki, and causing him to flee. Taranaki headed westwards, following Te Toka a Rahotu (the Rock of Rahotu) and forming the deep gorges of the Whanganui River,[36] paused for a while, creating the depression that formed the Te Ngaere swamp, then heading north. Further progress was blocked by the Pouakai Ranges, and as the sun came up Taranaki became petrified in his current location. When Taranaki conceals himself with rainclouds, he is said to be crying for his lost love, and during spectacular sunsets, he is said to be displaying himself to her.[37] In turn, Tongariro's eruptions are said to be a warning to Taranaki not to return.

History

[edit]
Mount Taranaki (Mt Egmont), from Inglewood, New Zealand, 1896
NASA satellite photo of Taranaki. The forested area matches the national park boundary fairly closely.

The mountain was tapu in Māori culture and at the time of European settlement not climbed by them.[3]

In 1839 the mountain was climbed by James Heberley, a whaler who reached the summit first and the Swiss trained doctor and naturalist Ernst Dieffenbach.[3] During his initial ascent, he identified the fast-flowing streams as being well suited to water driven mills.[38][not specific enough to verify] Dieffenbach was employed by the New Zealand Company to advise on the potential of land he explored in the North Island in 1839–40.[3]

In 1865 the mountain was confiscated from Māori by the New Zealand Government under the powers of the New Zealand Settlements Act 1863, ostensibly as a means of establishing and maintaining peace amid the Second Taranaki War. The legislation was framed with the intention of seizing and dividing up the land of Māori "in rebellion" and providing it as farmland for military settlers.

The mountain was returned to the people of Taranaki in 1978 by means of the Mount Egmont Vesting Act 1978, which vested it to the Taranaki Maori Trust Board. By means of the same Act, it was immediately passed back to the Government as a gift to the nation.[39] The Waitangi Tribunal, in its 1996 report, Kaupapa Tuatahi,[40] observed: "We are unaware of the evidence that the hapū agreed to this arrangement. Many who made submissions to us were adamant that most knew nothing of it." It cited a submission that suggested the political climate of 1975 was such that the board felt it was necessary to perform a gesture of goodwill designed to create a more favourable environment within which a monetary settlement could be negotiated.

Because of its resemblance to Mount Fuji, Taranaki provided the backdrop for the 2003 film The Last Samurai.[10]

In 2017, a record of understanding was signed between Taranaki iwi and the New Zealand government that will see the mountain become a legal personality.[41] It is the third geographic feature in the country to be granted a legal personality, after Te Urewera and Whanganui River.

On 2 December 2019, an agreement between the crown and Ngā Iwi o Taranaki was announced that the mountain was to only be referred to as Taranaki Maunga. The national park will be renamed from Egmont National Park to Te Papakura o Taranaki.[42] The name change has not yet been ratified by the New Zealand Geographic Board.[43]

National park

[edit]
Main article: Egmont National Park

In 1881, a circular area with a radius of six miles (9.6 km) from the summit was protected as a forest reserve. Areas encompassing the older volcanic remnants of Pouakai and Kaitake were later added to the reserve and in 1900 all this land was designated as Egmont National Park, the second national park in New Zealand. There are parts of the national park where old-growth forests are found.[44] With intensively-farmed dairy pasture right up to the park boundary, the change in vegetation is sharply delineated as a circular shape in satellite images.[45]

Recreation

[edit]
Taranaki from the Pouakai Circuit tramping track

The Stratford Mountain Club operates the Manganui skifield on the eastern slope. Equipment access to the skifield is by flying fox across the Manganui Gorge.

The Taranaki Alpine Club maintains Tahurangi Lodge on the north slope of the mountain, next to the television tower. The lodge is frequently used as the base for public climbs to the summit held in the summer months. The various climbing and tramping clubs organize these public events and provide informal guides.

Syme Hut is located near Fanthams Peak. It is maintained by the Department of Conservation and is available to trampers on a first come first served basis.

For the average person, Taranaki would be considered a moderate mountain to climb. It takes a person with good fitness level a day to make the up-and-back climb. Weather on the mountain can change rapidly, which has caught inexperienced trampers and climbers unawares. As of 27 June 2017, 84 people have died on the mountain since records began in 1891, many having been caught by a sudden change in the weather. In terms of fatalities this mountain is the second most dangerous mountain in New Zealand after Aoraki / Mount Cook.[46][47]

[edit]
Sites of interest on Mount Taranaki
  • Wilkies Pools
    Wilkies Pools
  • Dawson Falls
    Dawson Falls
  • View of Mount Ruapehu from close to the summit of Mount Taranaki
    View of Mount Ruapehu from close to the summit of Mount Taranaki

Access

[edit]
Aerial view of Mount Taranaki 2015

There are three roads on the mountain's eastern slopes that lead part-way up the mountain with many more around the foot of the mountain that access walking tracks.[43] The highest access road reaches the East Egmont plateau, with a viewing platform and parking facilities for the skifield. It lies at the transition between subalpine scrub and alpine herbfields.

There are park visitor centres at North Egmont and at the waterfall Te Rere o Kapuni on the southeast side.

The eastern side from Stratford leads to the Stratford Mountain House, and the ski field.

There is poor road access on the western side beyond the bush line. However, a road winds for 10 km through native bush over the saddle between Pouakai and Kaitake.[43] Near the top of this road is the renowned Pukeiti Trust rhododendron garden.[48]

Transmitter

[edit]

The Mount Taranaki transmitter is the main television and FM radio transmitter for the Taranaki region. It is located on the north-eastern slope of the mountain adjacent to Tahurangi Lodge. The first transmitter at the site was commissioned by the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation (NZBC) in 1966 to relay Wellington's WNTV1 channel (now part of TVNZ 1).[49]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Ngā iwi o Taranaki refers literally to 'the tribes of Taranaki', and is a collective of the eight tribes, Ngaa Rauru Kiitahi, Ngāruahine, Ngāti Maru, Ngāti Mutunga, Ngāti Ruanui, Ngāti Tama, Taranaki Iwi and Te Āti Awa

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Peaklist.org: Oceania". Archived from the original on 6 October 2020. Retrieved 4 March 2007.
  2. ^ "Pouakai Crossing". Department of Conservation. Archived from the original on 1 January 2023. Retrieved 7 August 2021.
  3. ^ a b c d Langton, Graham (1996). A History of Mountain Climbing in New Zealand to 1953 (PDF) (Thesis). Christchurch, New Zealand: University of Canterbury. pp. 1–337. Retrieved 3 August 2024.: 56–57 
  4. ^ "Mount Taranaki Summit Track (NZ DOC)". Archived from the original on 21 December 2013. Retrieved 4 March 2007.
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  6. ^ 'Likely to erupt in the future', Neal & Alloway 1991, as quoted in New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics Archived 22 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  7. ^ "Dawson Falls and East Egmont Walks" (PDF). Department of Conservation. 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 March 2012. Retrieved 8 July 2017.
  8. ^ Hōhaia, Te Miringa (1 March 2017). "Taranaki tribe – Tribal origins". Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
  9. ^ a b Reed, A. W. (2016). "Taranaki". Māori Place Names: Their Meanings and Origins. Revised by Peter Dowling. (4th ed.). Oratia Media. ISBN 978-0-947506-52-0. Archived from the original on 9 May 2023. Retrieved 19 May 2023.
  10. ^ a b Lambert, Ron (13 July 2012). "Taranaki Region – The mountain". Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Archived from the original on 22 March 2016. Retrieved 3 April 2016.
  11. ^ Coster, Deena (1 April 2016). "History reveals Taranaki's peak was once known by a different name". Taranaki Daily News. Archived from the original on 23 July 2017. Retrieved 3 April 2016.
  12. ^ McNab, Robert (1914). "CHAPTER IV. — COOK COMPLETES HIS SURVEY, 1769 AND 1770". From Tasman To Marsden: A History of Northern New Zealand from 1642 to 1818. PRINCES STREET, DUNEDIN.: J. WILKIE & CO., LTD. p. 48.
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  23. ^ "Taranaki Mounga FAQs". Archived from the original on 13 April 2023. Retrieved 13 April 2023.
  24. ^ a b c d e f g h i Cronin, Shane J.; Zernack, Anke V.; Ukstins, Ingrid A.; Turner, Michael B.; Torres-Orozco, Rafael; Stewart, Robert B.; Smith, Ian E. M.; Procter, Jonathan N.; Price, Richard; Platz, Thomas; Petterson, Michael; Neall, Vince E.; McDonald, Garry S.; Lerner, Geoffrey A.; Damaschcke, Magret; Bebbington, Mark S. (2021). "The geological history and hazards of a long-lived stratovolcano, Mt. Taranaki, New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 64 (2–3): 456–478. Bibcode:2021NZJGG..64..456C. doi:10.1080/00288306.2021.1895231.
  25. ^ a b c Shane, Phil; Costa, Fidel; Cronin, Shane; Stirling, Claudine; Reid, Malcolm (2023). "Priming and eruption of andesite magmas at Taranaki volcano recorded in plagioclase phenocrysts". Bulletin of Volcanology. 85 (47): 47. Bibcode:2023BVol...85...47S. doi:10.1007/s00445-023-01661-0. hdl:2292/66169.
  26. ^ a b "Volcanic Taranaki". Puke Ariki. Archived from the original on 1 February 2013. Retrieved 18 March 2010.
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  29. ^ a b c Price, R. C.; Stewart, R. B.; Woodhead, J. D.; Smith, I. E. M. (1999). "Petrogenesis of High-K Arc Magmas: Evidence from Egmont Volcano, North Island, New Zealand". Journal of Petrology. 40 (1): 167–197. doi:10.1093/petroj/40.1.167. Archived from the original on 11 June 2022. Retrieved 11 June 2022.
  30. ^ "Living With Volcanoes" (PDF), TEPHRA, vol. 21, Civil Defence, pp. 41–43, September 2004, archived (PDF) from the original on 28 January 2016, retrieved 3 April 2016
  31. ^ "Fanthams Peak". Peak Bagging New Zealand. 23 November 2016. Archived from the original on 31 August 2021. Retrieved 31 August 2021.
  32. ^ "CliFlo – National Climate Database : North Egmont". NIWA. Retrieved 20 May 2024.
  33. ^ "CliFlo – National Climate Database : Stratford Mtn House". NIWA. Retrieved 20 May 2024.
  34. ^ Wikaira, Martin (22 September 2012). "Ngāti Tūwharetoa – Mountains and lakes". Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Archived from the original on 21 July 2010. Retrieved 7 May 2010.
  35. ^ "Taranaki Region of New Zealand". Archived from the original on 14 May 2010. Retrieved 11 January 2014.
  36. ^ "Taranaki – Gliding Peak". Archived from the original on 14 July 2011.
  37. ^ "Maori Legend of Mounts Ruapehu and Taranaki (Egmont)". An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Government of New Zealand. Archived from the original on 11 January 2014. Retrieved 11 January 2014.
  38. ^ Ascent of Egmont. pp. 260–264. Ernest. Dieffenbach. Random House. 2008.
  39. ^ "Mount Egmont Vesting Act 1978". New Zealand Legislation. Parliamentary Counsel Office. Archived from the original on 8 May 2016. Retrieved 19 April 2016.
  40. ^ "Waitangi Tribunal: Kaupapa Tuatahi report, 1996, chapter 11". Archived from the original on 20 February 2012. Retrieved 2 February 2007.
  41. ^ Smith, Blanton (21 December 2017). "Mt Taranaki to become legal personality under agreement between iwi and government". Taranaki Daily News. Archived from the original on 7 October 2018. Retrieved 21 December 2017.
  42. ^ "Taranaki Maunga to be recognised solely for its Māori name". Radio New Zealand. 3 December 2019. Archived from the original on 3 December 2019. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
  43. ^ a b c "New Zealand Gazetteer, Mount Taranaki or Mount Egmont". Land Information New Zealand. Archived from the original on 24 February 2020. Retrieved 3 August 2024.
  44. ^ C. Michael Hogan. 2009. Crown Fern: Blechnum discolor, Globaltwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg Archived 13 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  45. ^ Taonga, New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu. "Satellite image of Egmont National Park". teara.govt.nz. Archived from the original on 10 July 2021. Retrieved 10 July 2021.
  46. ^ McMurray, Kirsty; Burroughs, David; Watson, Mike (29 June 2017). "Safety call after latest Mt Taranaki death". Daily News. Archived from the original on 2 July 2017. Retrieved 3 July 2017.
  47. ^ Watson, Mike (4 July 2017). "Adventurous climber uses snapped ski pole to anchor 300-metre fall on Mt Taranaki". stuff.co.nz.
  48. ^ Goldsmith, Susette (2014). Turning over old ground. Investigating garden heritage in Aotearoa New Zealand. Masters thesis (PDF) (Thesis). Victoria University of Wellington. Retrieved 3 August 2024.: 75 
  49. ^ "Parliamentary Debates (Hansard)". Vol. 351. New Zealand Parliament. 28 June 1967. p. 1394.
[edit]
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