Jump to content

Minorities in Turkey

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Ethnic groups in Turkey (The World Factbook, 2016 estimations)[1]
Ethnic groups Percent
Turks
 
 70–75%
Kurds
 
 19%
Others (Circassians, Arabs, Greeks, Armenians, Assyrians, Turkish Jews, etc.)
 
 6–11%

Minorities in Turkey form a substantial part of the country's population, representing an estimated 25 to 28 percent of the population.[2] Historically, in the Ottoman Empire, Islam was the official and dominant religion, with Muslims having more rights than non-Muslims, whose rights were restricted.[3] Non-Muslim (dhimmi) ethno-religious[4] groups were legally identified by different millet ("nations").[3]

Following the end of World War I and the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, all Ottoman Muslims were made part of the modern citizenry or the Turkish nation as the newly founded Republic of Turkey was constituted as a Muslim nation state. While Turkish nationalist policy viewed all Muslims in Turkey as Turks without exception, non-Muslim minority groups, such as Jews and Christians, were designated as "foreign nations" (dhimmi).[4][5] Conversely, Turk (term for Muslims) was used to denote all groups in the region who had been Islamized under Ottoman rule, especially Muslim Albanians and Slavic Muslims.[3]

The 1923 Treaty of Lausanne specified Armenians, Greeks and Jews and Christians in general as ethnic minorities (dhimmi). This legal status was not granted to Muslim minorities, such as the Kurds, which constituted the largest minority by a wide margin, nor any of the other minorities in the country. In modern Turkey, data on the ethnic makeup of the country is not officially collected, although various estimates exist. All Muslim citizens are still regarded as Turks by law, regardless of their ethnicity or language, in contrast to non-Muslim minorities, who are still grouped as "non-Turks"; the largest ethnic minority, the Kurds, who are predominantly Muslim, are therefore still classified as simply "Turks".[4][5][6][7][8][9] Bulgarians are also an officially recognized minority by the Turkey-Bulgaria Friendship Treaty (Türkiye ve Bulgaristan Arasındaki Dostluk Antlaşması) of 18 October 1925 but there are no more Bulgarians in Turkey.[8][10][11] On 18 June 2013, the Ankara 13th Circuit Administrative Court unanimously ruled that the Assyrians were included as beneficiaries of the Lausanne Treaty,[12][a] so that Assyrians were allowed to open the first school teaching in their mother tongue.[13][14]

The amount of ethnic minorities is considered to be underestimated by the Turkish government. Therefore, the exact number of members of ethnic groups who are Muslim is unknown; these include Arabs, Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Chechens, Abkhazians, Crimean Tatars, Laz, Hemshin Armenians, Kurds, Pomaks, Turkish Roma, and Pontic Greeks, among other smaller groups like Dom, Lom, Vallahades, Greek Muslims, Cretan Muslims, Nantinets, Imerkhevians. Many of the Non turkish Muslims minorities are descendants of Muslims (muhajirs) who were expelled from the lands lost by the shrinking Ottoman Empire, like the Balkans and Caucasus Mountains.[15][16][17] The majority have assimilated into and intermarried with the majority Turkish population and have adopted the Turkish language and way of life, though do not necessarily identify as Turks, especially the Pomaks. Turkification and often aggressive Turkish nationalist policies strengthen these trends.[citation needed]

Tables

[edit]
Distribution of nationalities in Anatolia[18]
Ottoman official statistics, 1910
Sanjak Turks Greeks Armenians Jews Others Total
Istanbul (Asiatic shore) 135,681 70,906 30,465 5,120 16,812 258,984
İzmit 184,960 78,564 50,935 2,180 1,435 318,074
Aydin (İzmir) 974,225 629,002 17,247 24,361 58,076 1,702,911
Bursa 1,346,387 274,530 87,932 2,788 6,125 1,717,762
Konya 1,143,335 85,320 9,426 720 15,356 1,254,157
Ankara 991,666 54,280 101,388 901 12,329 1,160,564
Trabzon 1,047,889 351,104 45,094 - - 1,444,087
Sivas 933,572 98,270 165,741 - - 1,197,583
Kastamonu 1,086,420 18,160 3,061 - 1,980 1,109,621
Adana 212,454 88,010 81,250 – 107,240 488,954
Canakkale 136,000 29,000 2,000 3,300 98 170,398
Total 8,192,589 1,777,146 594,539 39,370 219,451 10,823,095
Percentage 75.7% 16.42% 5.50% 0.36% 2.03%  
Ecumenical Patriarchate statistics, 1912
Total 7,048,662 1,788,582 608,707 37,523 218,102 9,695,506
Percentage 72.7% 18.45% 6.28% 0.39% 2.25%  
Distribution of nationalities in East Thrace
Ottoman official statistics, 1910[19]
Sanjak Turks Greeks Bulgarians Others Total
Edirne 128,000 113,500 31,500 14,700 287,700
Kirk Kilisse 53,000 77,000 28,500 1,150 159,650
Tekirdağ 63,500 56,000 3,000 21,800 144,300
Gallipoli 31,500 70,500 2,000 3,200 107,200
Çatalca 18,000 48,500 – 2,340 68,840
Istanbul 450,000 260,000 6,000 130,000 846,000
Total 744,000 625,500 71,000 173,190 1,613,690
Percentage 46.11% 38.76% 4.40% 10.74%  
Ecumenical Patriarchate statistics, 1912
Total 604,500 655,600 71,800 337,600 1,669,500
Percentage 36.20% 39.27% 4.30% 20.22%  
Muslim and non-Muslim population in Turkey, 1914–2005 (in thousands)[20]
Year 1914 1927 1945 1965 1990 2005
Muslims 12,941 13,290 18,511 31,139 56,860 71,997
Greeks 1,549 110 104 76 8 3
Armenians 1,204 77 60 64 67 50
Jews 128 82 77 38 29 27
Others 176 71 38 74 50 45
Total 15,997 13,630 18,790 31,391 57,005 72,120
Percentage non-Muslim 19.1 2.5 1.5 0.8 0.3 0.2
Part of a series on the
Culture of Turkey
History
People
Languages
Mythology and folklore
Cuisine
Festivals
Religion
Art
Literature
Music and performing arts
Media
Sport
Monuments
Symbols

Ethnic minorities

[edit]

Abdal

[edit]
Main article: Abdal of Turkey

Groups of nomadic and semi-nomadic itinerants found mainly in central and western Anatolia. They speak an argot of their own and are Alevis.[21]

Afghans

[edit]
Main article: Afghans in Turkey

Afghans are one of the largest irregular migrant groups in Turkey. From the period 2003–2007, the number of Afghans apprehended were significant, with statistics almost doubling during the last year. Most had fled the War in Afghanistan. In 2005, refugees from Afghanistan numbered 300 and made a sizeable proportion of Turkey's registered migrants.[22] Most of them were spread out over satellite cities with Van and Ağrı being the most specific locations.[23] In the following years, the number of Afghans entering Turkey greatly increased, second only to migrants from Iraq; in 2009, there were 16,000 people designated under the Iraq-Afghanistan category. Despite a dramatic 50 percent reduction by 2010, reports confirmed hundreds living and working in Turkey.[24] As of January 2010, Afghans consisted one-sixth of the 26,000 remaining refugees and asylum seekers.[25] By the end 2011, their numbers are expected to surge up to 10,000, making them the largest population and surpass other groups.

Africans

[edit]
Main article: Afro Turks

Beginning several centuries ago, a number of Africans, usually via Zanzibar as Zanj and from places such as Niger, Saudi Arabia, Libya, Kenya and Sudan,[26] came to the Ottoman Empire settled by the Dalaman, Menderes and Gediz valleys, Manavgat, and Çukurova. African quarters of 19th-century İzmir, including Sabırtaşı, Dolapkuyu, Tamaşalık, İkiçeşmelik, and Ballıkuyu, are mentioned in contemporary records.[27] Due to the slave trade in the Ottoman Empire that had flourished in the Balkans, the coastal town of Ulcinj in Montenegro had its own black community.[28] As a consequence of the slave trade and privateer activity, it is told how until 1878 in Ulcinj 100 black people lived.[29] The Ottoman Army also deployed an estimated 30,000 Black African troops and cavalrymen to its expedition in Hungary during the Austro-Turkish War of 1716–18.[30]

Albanians

[edit]
Main article: Albanians in Turkey

A 2008 report from the Turkish National Security Council (MGK) estimated that approximately 1.3 million people of Albanian ancestry live in Turkey, and more than 500,000 recognizing their ancestry, language and culture. There are other estimates, however, that place the number of people in Turkey with Albanian ancestry and or background upward to 5 million.[31]

However, these assumptions of the Turkish government are contested by many scholars who claim they are without any basis.[32][need quotation to verify]

Arabs

[edit]
Main article: Arabs in Turkey
Further information: Iraqis in Turkey and Syrians in Turkey

Arabs in Turkey number around 2 million, and they mostly live in provinces near the Syrian border, particularly the Hatay region, where they made up two fifths of the population in 1936.[33]

However, including recent Syrian refugees, they make up to 5.3%[citation needed] of the population. Most of them are Sunni Muslims.[citation needed] However, there is a small group of Alawis, and another one of Arab Christians (mostly in Hatay Province) in communion with the Antiochian Orthodox Church.[citation needed]

Turkey experienced a large influx of Iraqis between the years of 1988 and 1991 due to both the Iran–Iraq War and the first Gulf War,[34] with around 50,000 to 460,000 Iraqis entering the country.[35]

Syrians in Turkey include migrants from Syria to Turkey, as well as their descendants. The number of Syrians in Turkey is estimated at over 3.58 million people as of April 2018,[36] and consists mainly of refugees of the Syrian Civil War.

Armenians

[edit]
Main article: Armenians in Turkey
Further information: Armenian genocide, Hemshin peoples, and Hidden Armenians

Armenians are indigenous to the Armenian Highlands which correspond to the eastern half of modern-day Turkey, the Republic of Armenia, southern Georgia, western Azerbaijan, and northwestern Iran. Although the word Armenia was banned from being used in the press, schoolbooks, and governmental establishments in Turkey in 1880 and although it was subsequently replaced with words like eastern Anatolia or northern Kurdistan, Armenians had maintained much of their cultural heritage.[37][38][39][40][41] The Armenian population of Turkey was greatly reduced following the Hamidian massacres and the Armenian genocide, when over one and a half million Armenians, virtually the entire Armenian population of Anatolia, were massacred. Prior to the start of the Genocide in 1915, the Armenian population of Turkey numbered about 1,914,620.[42][43] The Armenian community of the Ottoman Empire before the Armenian genocide had an estimated 2,300 churches and 700 schools (with 82,000 students).[44] This figure excludes churches and schools which belonged to the Protestant and Catholic Armenian parishes because the only churches and schools which were counted were the churches and schools which were under the jurisdiction of the Istanbul Armenian Patriarchate and the Apostolic Church.[44] After the Armenian genocide however, it is estimated that 200,000 Armenians remained in Turkey.[45] Today there are an estimated 40,000 to 70,000 Armenians in Turkey, not including the Hamshenis.[46][47]

During the Turkish Republican era, Armenians were subjected to many policies which were designed to abolish Armenian cultural heritage such as the Turkification of last names, Islamification, geographical name changes, confiscation of properties, change of animal names,[48] changes of the names of Armenian historical figures (i.e. the name of the prominent Balyan family were concealed under an identity of a superficial Italian family called Baliani),[49][50] and the change and distortion of Armenian historical events.[51]

Today, the Armenians are mostly concentrated around Istanbul. The Armenians support their own newspapers and schools. The majority belong to the Armenian Apostolic faith, with much smaller numbers of Armenian Catholics and Armenian Evangelicals. The community currently functions 34,[clarification needed] 18 schools, and 2 hospitals.[44]

Assyrians

[edit]
Main article: Assyrians in Turkey

Assyrians were once a large ethnic minority in the Ottoman Empire, but following the early 20th century Assyrian genocide, many were murdered, deported, or ended up emigrating. Those that remain live in small numbers in their indigenous South Eastern Turkey (although in larger numbers than other groups murdered in Armenian or Greek genocides) and Istanbul. They number around 30,000 and are part of the Syriac Orthodox Church, Chaldean Catholic Church and Church of the East.

Australians

[edit]
Main article: Australians in Turkey

There are as many as 12,000 Australians in Turkey.[52] Of these, the overwhelming majority are in the capital Ankara (roughly 10,000) while the remaining are in Istanbul. Australian expatriates in Turkey form one of the largest overseas Australian groups in Europe and Asia. The vast majority of Australian nationals in Turkey are Turkish Australians.

Azerbaijanis

[edit]
Main article: Azerbaijanis in Turkey

It is hard to determine how many ethnic Azeris currently reside in Turkey because ethnicity is a rather fluid concept in this country.[53] Up to 300,000 of Azeris who reside in Turkey are citizens of Azerbaijan.[54] In the Eastern Anatolia Region, Azeris are sometimes referred to as acem (see Ajam) or tat.[55] They currently are the largest ethnic group in the city of Iğdır[56] and second largest ethnic group in Kars.[57]

Bosniaks

[edit]
Main article: Bosniaks in Turkey

Today, the existence of Bosniaks in the country is evident everywhere. In cities like Istanbul, Eskişehir, Ankara, İzmir, or Adana, one can easily find districts, streets, shops or restaurants with names such as Bosna, Yenibosna, Mostar, or Novi Pazar.[58] However, it is extremely difficult to estimate how many Bosniaks live in this country. Some Bosnian researchers believe that the number of Bosniaks in Turkey is about two million.[59]

Britons

[edit]
Main article: Britons in Turkey

There are at least 34,000 Britons in Turkey.[60] They consist mainly of British citizens married to Turkish spouses, British Turks who have moved back into the country, students and families of long-term expatriates employed predominately in white-collar industry.[61]

Bulgarians

[edit]
Main article: Bulgarians in Turkey
Further information: Pomaks in Turkey

People identifying as Bulgarian include a large number of the Pomak and a small number of Orthodox Bulgarians.[62][63][64][65][66] According to Ethnologue at present 300,000 Pomaks in European Turkey speak Bulgarian as their mother tongue.[67] It is very hard to estimate the number of Pomaks along with the Turkified Pomaks who live in Turkey, as they have blended into the Turkish society and have been often linguistically and culturally dissimilated.[68] According to Milliyet and Turkish Daily News reports, the number of Pomaks along with the Turkified Pomaks in the country is about 600,000.[69][68] According to the Bulgarian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Bulgarian Orthodox Christian community in Turkey stands at 500 members.[70]

Central Asian peoples

[edit]

Turkey received refugees from among the Pakistan-based Kazakhs, Turkmen, Kirghiz, and Uzbeks numbering 3,800 originally from Afghanistan during the Soviet–Afghan War.[71] Kayseri, Van, Amasra, Cicekdag, Gaziantep, Tokat, Urfa, and Serinvol received via Adana the Pakistan-based Kazakh, Turkmen, Kirghiz, and Uzbek refugees numbering 3,800 with UNHCR assistance.[72]

Kazakhs

[edit]

There are about 30,000 Kazakh people living in Zeytinburnu-Istanbul. It is known that there are Kazakh people in other parts of Turkey, for instance Manisa, Konya. In 1969 and 1954 Kazakhs migrated into Anatolia's Salihli, Develi and Altay regions.[73] Turkey became home to refugee Kazakhs.[74] The Kazakh Turks Foundation (Kazak Türkleri Vakfı) is an organization of Kazakhs in Turkey.[75] Kazakhs in Turkey came via Pakistan and Afghanistan.[76] Kazak Kültür Derneği (Kazakh Culture Associration) is a Kazakh diaspora organization in Turkey.[77]

Kyrgyz

[edit]

Turkey's Lake Van area is the home of Kyrgyz refugees from Afghanistan.[78] Turkey became a destination for Kyrgyz refugees due to the Soviet–Afghan War from Afghanistan's Wakhan area[79] 500 remained and did not go to Turkey with the others.[80] Friendship and Culture Society of Kyrgyzstan (Кыргызстан Достук жана Маданият Коому) (Kırgızistan Kültür ve Dostluk Derneği Resmi Sitesi) is a Kyrgyz diaspora organization in Turkey.[81]

They were airlifted in 1982 from Pakistan where they had sought refugee after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan at the end of 1979. Their original home was at the eastern end of the Wakhan Corridor, in the Pamirs, bordering on China. It is not known how many Kyrgyz still live in Van and how many have moved on to other parts of Turkey.

Megleno-Romanians

[edit]

Around 5,000 Muslim Megleno-Romanians live in Turkey.[82]

Uzbeks

[edit]

Turkey is home to 45,000 Uzbeks.[83] In the 1800s Konya's north Bogrudelik was settled by Tatar Bukharlyks. In 1981 Afghan Turkestan refugees in Pakistan moved to Turkey to join the existing Kayseri, Izmir, Ankara, and Zeytinburnu based communities.[73] Turkish based Uzbeks have established links to Saudi-based Uzbeks.[84]

Uyghurs

[edit]
See also: Turkistan Islamic Party

Turkey is home to 50,000 Uyghurs.[85] A community of Uyghurs live in Turkey.[86][87] Kayseri received Uyghurs numbering close to 360 via the UNHCR in 1966–1967 from Pakistan.[88] The Turkey-based Uyghur diaspora had a number of family members among Saudi Arabia, Afghanistan, India, and Pakistan based Uyghurs who stayed behind while the UNHCR and government of Turkey had Kayseri receive 75 Uyghurs in 1967 and 230 Uyghurs in 1965 and a number in 1964 under Alptekin and Bughra.[89] We never call each other Uyghur, but only refer to ourselves as East Turkestanis, or Kashgarlik, Turpanli, or even Turks.- according to some Uyghurs born in Turkey.[90][91]

A community of Uyghurs live in Istanbul.[citation needed] Tuzla and Zeytinburnu mosques are used by the Uyghurs in Istanbul.[92][93] Piety is a characteristic of among Turkey dwelling Uyghurs.[94][95]

Istanbul's districts of Küçükçekmece, Sefaköy and Zeytinburnu are home to Uyghur communities.[96] Eastern Turkistan Education and Solidarity Association is located in Turkey.[97] Abdurahmon Abdulahad of the East Turkistan Education Association supported Uzbek Islamists who protested against Russia and Islam Karimov's Uzbekistan government.[98] Uyghurs are employed in Küçükçekmece and Zeytinburnu restaurants.[99][100] East Turkistan Immigration Association,[101] East Turkistan Culture and Solidarity Association,[102] and Eastern Turkistan Education and Solidarity Association are Uyghur diaspora organizations in Turkey.[103]

Circassians

[edit]
Main article: Circassians in Turkey

According to Milliyet, there are approximately 2.5 million Circassians in Turkey.[69] According to the EU reports there are three to five million Circassians in Turkey.[104] The closely related ethnic groups Abazins (10,000[105]) and Abkhazians (39,000[106]) are also often counted among them. Circassians are a Caucasian immigrant people, and although the Circassians in Turkey were forced to forget their language and assimilate into Turkish, a small minority still speak their native Circassian languages as it is still spoken in many Circassian villages, and the group that preserved their language the best are the Kabardians.[107] With the rise of Circassian nationalism in the 21st century, Circassians in Turkey, especially the young, have started to study and learn their language. The Circassians in Turkey are mostly Sunni Muslims of Hanafi madh'hab.[108] The largest association of Circassians in Turkey,[109] KAFFED, is the founding member of the International Circassian Association (ICA).[110]

Crimean Tatars

[edit]
Main article: Crimean Tatars in Turkey

Before the 20th century, Crimean Tatars had immigrated from Crimea to Turkey in three waves: First, after the Russian annexation of Crimea in 1783; second, after the Crimean War of 1853–56; third, after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78.[111] The official number[citation needed] of Crimean Tatars is 150,000 (in the center of Eskişehir) but the real population (in the whole of Turkey) may be a few million. They mostly live in Eskişehir Province[112] and Kazan-Ankara.

Dagestani peoples

[edit]

Various ethnic groups from Dagestan are present in Turkey. Dagestani peoples live in villages in the provinces like Balıkesir, Tokat and also scattered in other parts of the country. A majority among them are Nogais; Lezgins and Avars are other significant ethnic groups. Kumyks are also present.[citation needed]

Dutch

[edit]

Approximately 15,000 Dutch live in Turkey.[113]

Dom people

[edit]

The Dom people, live mostly in Eastern Anatolia Region, also from Syria Dom Refugees came to Turkey.

Filipinos

[edit]
Main article: Filipinos in Turkey

There were 5,500 Filipinos in Turkey as of 2008, according to estimates by the Commission on Filipinos Overseas and the Philippine embassy in Ankara.[114] Out of those, most are recorded as maids and "overseas workers" employed in households of diplomatic communities and elite Turkish families.[115] Moreover, ten percent or approximately 500 Filipinos in Turkey are skilled workers and professionals working as engineers, architects, doctors and teachers.[115] Most of the Filipinos reside in Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir, Antalya and nearby surrounding areas.[114]

Georgians

[edit]
Main article: Georgians in Turkey

There are approximately 1 million people of Georgian ancestry in Turkey according to the newspaper Milliyet.[69] Georgians in Turkey are mostly Sunni Muslims of Hanafi madh'hab. Immigrant Georgians are called "Chveneburi", but autochthonous Muslim Georgians use this term as well. Muslim Georgians form the majority in parts of Artvin Province east of the Çoruh River. Immigrant Muslim groups of Georgian origin, found scattered in Turkey, are known as Chveneburi. The smallest Georgian group are Catholics living in Istanbul.

Germans

[edit]
Main article: Germans in Turkey

There are over 50,000 Germans living in Turkey, primarily Germans married to Turkish spouses, employees, retirees and long-term tourists who buy properties across the Turkish coastline, often spending most of the year in the country.[116] In addition, many Turkish Germans have also returned and settled.

Greeks

[edit]
Main articles: Greeks in Turkey and Pontic Greeks
Further information: Pontus (region)

The Greeks constitute a population of Greek and Greek-speaking Eastern Orthodox Christians who mostly live in Istanbul, including its district Princes' Islands, as well as on the two islands of the western entrance to the Dardanelles: Imbros and Tenedos (Turkish: Gökçeada and Bozcaada). Some Greek-speaking Byzantine Christians have been assimilated over the course of the last one thousand years.

They are the remnants of the estimated 200,000 Greeks who were permitted under the provisions of the Treaty of Lausanne to remain in Turkey following the 1923 population exchange,[117] which involved the forcible resettlement of approximately 1.5 million Greeks from Anatolia and East Thrace and of half a million Turks from all of Greece except for Western Thrace. After years of persecution (e.g. the Varlık Vergisi and the Istanbul Pogrom), emigration of ethnic Greeks from the Istanbul region greatly accelerated, reducing the 119,822 [118] -strong Greek minority before the attack to about 7,000 by 1978.[119] The 2008 figures released by the Turkish Foreign Ministry places the current number of Turkish citizens of Greek descent at the 3,000–4,000 mark.[120] According to Milliyet there are 15,000 Greeks in Turkey,[69] while according to Human Rights Watch the Greek population in Turkey was estimated at 2,500 in 2006.[121] According to the same source, the Greek population in Turkey was collapsing as the community was by then far too small to sustain itself demographically, due to emigration, much higher death rates than birth rates and continuing discrimination.[121] In recent years however, most notably since the economic crisis in Greece, the trend has reversed. A few hundred to over a thousand Greeks now migrate to Turkey yearly for employment or educational purposes.[122][123] Christian Greeks were forced to migrate as per the 1923 population exchange agreement. Muslim Greeks live in Turkey today. They live in cities of Trabzon and Rize. Pontic Greeks have Greek ancestry and speak the Pontic Greek dialect, a distinct form of the standard Greek language which, due to the remoteness of Pontus, has undergone linguistic evolution distinct from that of the rest of the Greek world. The Pontic Greeks had a continuous presence in the region of Pontus (modern-day northeastern Turkey), Georgia, and Eastern Anatolia from at least 700 BC until 1922.

Since 1924, the status of the Greek minority in Turkey has been ambiguous. Beginning in the 1930s, the government instituted repressive policies forcing many Greeks to emigrate. Examples are the labour battalions drafted among non-Muslims during World War II as well as the Fortune Tax levied mostly on non-Muslims during the same period. These resulted in financial ruination and death for many Greeks. The exodus was given greater impetus with the Istanbul Pogrom of September 1955 which led to thousands of Greeks fleeing the city, eventually reducing the Christian Greek population to about 7,000 by 1978 and to about 2,500 by 2006 before beginning to increase again after 2008.

Iranians

[edit]
Main article: Iranian diaspora

Shireen Hunter noted in a 2010 publication that there were 500,000 Iranians residing in Turkey.[124]

Jews

[edit]
Main article: History of the Jews in Turkey
Further information: Antisemitism in Turkey

There have been Jewish communities in Asia Minor since at least the 5th century BC and many Spanish and Portuguese Jews expelled from Spain came to the Ottoman Empire (including regions part of modern Turkey) in the late 15th century. Despite emigration during the 20th century, modern-day Turkey continues to have a small Jewish population of about 20,000.[69]

Karachay

[edit]

Karachay people live in villages concentrated in Konya and Eskişehir.

Kurds

[edit]
Main articles: Kurds in Turkey and Turkish Kurdistan
Further information: Human rights of Kurdish people in Turkey
Percentage of Kurdish population in Turkey by region[125]
Kurdish mother and child, Van, Turkey. 1973

Ethnic Kurds are the largest minority in Turkey, composing around 20% of the population according to Milliyet, 19% of the total populace or c. 14 million people according to the CIA World Factbook, and as much as 23% according to Kurdologist David McDowall.[1][126] Unlike the Turks, the Kurds speak an Iranian language. There are Kurds living all over Turkey, but most live to the east and southeast of the country, from where they originate.

In the 1930s, Turkish government policy aimed to forcibly assimilate and Turkify local Kurds. Since 1984, Kurdish resistance movements included both peaceful political activities for basic civil rights for Kurds within Turkey, and violent armed rebellion for a separate Kurdish state.[127]

Laz

[edit]
Main article: Laz people in Turkey

Most Laz people today live in Turkey, but the Laz minority group has no official status in Turkey. The Laz are Sunni Muslims. Only a minority are bilingual in Turkish and their native Laz language which belongs to the Kartvelian group. The number of the Laz speakers is decreasing, and is now limited chiefly to the Rize and Artvin areas. The historical term Lazistan — formerly referring to a narrow tract of land along the Black Sea inhabited by the Laz as well as by several other ethnic groups — has been banned from official use and replaced with Doğu Karadeniz (which also includes Trabzon). During the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, the Muslim population of Russia near the war zones was subjected to ethnic cleansing; many Lazes living in Batumi fled to the Ottoman Empire, settling along the southern Black Sea coast to the east of Samsun.

Levantines

[edit]
Main article: Levantines (Latin Christians)

Levantines continue to live in Istanbul (mostly in the districts of Galata, Beyoğlu and Nişantaşı), İzmir (mostly in the districts of Karşıyaka, Bornova and Buca), and the lesser port city Mersin where they had been influential for creating and reviving a tradition of opera.[128] Famous people of the present-day Levantine community in Turkey include Maria Rita Epik, Franco-Levantine Caroline Giraud Koç and Italo-Levantine Giovanni Scognamillo.

Lom people

[edit]

The Lom people live in the Black sea Region, and in Kars, Ardahan, and Artvin. They are also named as Poşa, they speak Lomavren .

Meskhetian Turks

[edit]

There is a community of Meskhetian Turks (Ahiska Turks) in Turkey.[129]

Chechens and Ingush

[edit]
Main article: Chechens in Turkey

Chechens in Turkey are Turkish citizens of Chechen descent and Chechen refugees living in Turkey. Chechens and Ingush live in the provinces of Istanbul, Kahramanmaraş, Mardin, Sivas, and Muş.[citation needed]

Ossetians

[edit]
Main article: Ossetians in Turkey

Ossetians emigrated from North Ossetia since the second half of the 19th century, end of Caucasian War. Today, the majority of them live in Ankara and Istanbul. There are 24 Ossetian villages in central and eastern Anatolia. The Ossetians in Turkey are divided into three major groups, depending on their history of immigration and ensuing events: those living in Kars (Sarıkamış) and Erzurum, those in Sivas, Tokat and Yozgat and those in Muş and Bitlis.[130]

Turkish Cypriots

[edit]
Main article: Turkish Cypriots

Turkish Cypriots or Cypriot Turks are a group of Turks that arrived in Turkey in different waves from 1878 to the current. Currently the Turkish Cypriot population is estimated to be between the 300,000 to over 650,000.

Patriyotlar

[edit]

The Patriyotlar in Turkey are ethnic Macedonians (Greeks) of Bektashi Order.[131]., they converted to Islam during the time of the Ottoman empire, once lived in the Sanjak of Serfiğe. Because of their pro-Turkish attitude, at the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922), this Group of Vallahades were called Patriyotlar (Vatanseverler), sometimes called as "Rumyöz". At the Population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923, they moved to Turkey and settled in Edirne, Lüleburgaz, Çorlu and Büyükçekmece in East Thrace and Samsun and Manisa in Anatolia.[132] The first Generation only speak Greek and not Turkish, yet their descendants speak Turkish.[133]

Poles

[edit]

There are only 4,000 ethnic Poles in Turkey who have been assimilated[citation needed] into the main Turkish culture. The immigration did start during the Partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Józef Bem was one of the first immigrants and Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski founded Polonezköy in 1842. Most Poles in Turkey live in Polonezköy, Istanbul.

Roma

[edit]
Main article: Roma in Turkey

The Roma in Turkey number approximately 700,000 according to Milliyet.[69] Sulukule is the oldest Roma settlement in Europe. By different Turkish and Non-Turkish estimates the number of Romani is up to 4 or 5 million[134][135] while according to a Turkish source, they are only 0.05% of Turkey's population (or roughly persons).[136] The descendants of the Ottoman Roma today are known as Xoraxane Roma and are of the Islamic faith.[137]

Russians

[edit]
Main article: Russians in Turkey

Russians in Turkey number about 50,000 citizens.[138] Russians began migrating to Turkey during the first half of the 1990s. Most were fleeing the economic problems prevalent after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. During this period, many Russian immigrants intermarried and assimilated with Turkish locals, giving rise to a rapid increase in mixed marriages.[138] There is a Russian Association of Education, Culture and Cooperation which aims to expand Russian language and culture in Turkey as well as promote the interests of the community.

Serbs

[edit]
Main article: Serbs in Turkey

In the 1965 Census 6,599 Turkish citizen spoke Serbian as a first language and another 58,802 spoke Serbian as a second language.[139]

Zazas

[edit]
Main article: Zaza people

The Zazas are a people in eastern Turkey who natively speak the Zaza language.[140] Their heartland, the Dersim region, consists of Tunceli, Bingöl provinces and parts of Elazığ, Erzincan and Diyarbakır provinces.[141][142] Their language Zazaki is a language spoken in eastern Anatolia between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris. It belongs to the northwest-Iranian group of the Iranian language branch of the Indo-European language family. The Zaza language is related to Kurdish, Persian and Balōchi. An exact indication of the number of Zaza speakers is unknown. Internal Zaza sources estimate the total number of Zaza speakers at 3 to 6 million.[143][144]

Religious minorities

[edit]
Main article: Religion in Turkey
See also: Freedom of religion in Turkey

Atheists

[edit]

In Turkey, atheism is the biggest group after Islam. The percentage of atheists according to polls apparently rose from about 2% in 2012[145] to approximately 3% in 2018 KONDA Survey.[146]

Bahá'í

[edit]
The house where the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, Bahá'u'lláh stayed in, Edirne
Main article: Bahá'í Faith in Turkey

Turkish cities Edirne and Istanbul are in the holy places of this religion. Estimate Bahá'í population in Turkey is 10,000 (2008) [147]

Christians

[edit]
Main articles: Christianity in the Ottoman Empire and Christianity in Turkey
Further information: Persecution of Christians § Turkey
Church of St. Anthony of Padua in Istanbul.

Christianity has a long history in Anatolia which, nowadays part of the Republic of Turkey's territory, was the birthplace of numerous Christian Apostles and Saints, such as Apostle Paul of Tarsus, Timothy, St. Nicholas of Myra, St. Polycarp of Smyrna and many others. Two out of the five centers (Patriarchates) of the ancient Pentarchy were located in present-day Turkey: Constantinople (Istanbul) and Antioch (Antakya). All of the first seven Ecumenical Councils which are recognized by both the Western and Eastern churches were held in present-day Turkey. Of these, the Nicene Creed, declared with the First Council of Nicaea (İznik) in 325, is of utmost importance and has provided the essential definitions of present-day Christianity.

In 2022, Christians were seen as being 0.2% of the population. Estimates included 90,000 Armenian Orthodox, 25,000 Roman Catholics, 25,000 Syrian Orthodox, 150,000 Eastern Orthodox (largely due to an influx of an estimated 60,000 Russians and 40,000 Ukrainians), 2,000-3,500 Armenian Catholics, fewer than 3,000 Chaldean Christians, 7,000 to 10,000 members of Protestant and evangelical Christian, fewer than 2,500 Greek Orthodox and small groups of Bulgarian Orthodox and Georgian Orthodox Christians.[148]

Orthodox Christians

[edit]
Aya Triada Greek Orthodox church in Beyoğlu, Istanbul
Main article: Eastern Orthodox Christianity in Turkey

Orthodox Christianity forms a tiny minority in Turkey, comprising far less than one tenth of one percent of the entire population. The provinces of Istanbul and Hatay, which includes Antakya, are the main centres of Turkish Christianity, with comparatively dense Christian populations, though they are very small minorities. The main variant of Christianity present in Turkey is the Eastern Orthodox branch, focused mainly in the Greek Orthodox Church.

Catholics

[edit]
Main article: Catholic Church in Turkey
The Church of St. Paul in Tharsus

There are around 35,000 Catholics,[148] constituting 0.05% of the population. The faithful are of the Latin Church, Melkite Greek Catholic Church, Armenian Catholic Church, Syriac Catholic Church, and Chaldean Catholic Church. Most Latin Catholics are Levantines of mainly Italian or French background, although a few are ethnic Turks (who are usually converts via marriage to Levantines or other non-Turkish Catholics). Byzantine, Armenian, Syriac, and Chaldean Catholics are generally members of the Greek (and Syrian), Armenian, Syrian, and Assyrian minority groups respectively. Turkey's Catholics are concentrated in Istanbul.[citation needed]

In February 2006, Catholic priest Andrea Santoro, an Italian missionary working in Turkey for 10 years, was shot twice at his church near the Black Sea.[149] He had written a letter to the Pope asking him to visit Turkey.[150] Pope Benedict XVI visited Turkey in November 2006.[151] Relations had been rocky since Pope Benedict XVI had stated his opposition to Turkey joining the European Union.[152] The Council of Catholic Bishops met with the Turkish prime minister in 2004 to discuss restrictions and difficulties such as property issues.[153] More recently, Bishop Luigi Padovese, on June 6, 2010, the Vicar Apostolic of Turkey, was killed.

Protestants

[edit]
Main article: Protestantism in Turkey

Protestants comprise far less than one tenth of one percent of the population of Turkey, or less than 10,000 people.[148] Even so, there is an Alliance of Protestant Churches in Turkey.[154][155] The constitution of Turkey recognizes freedom of religion for individuals. The Armenian Protestants own three Istanbul Churches from the 19th century.[155] On 4 November 2006, a Protestant place of worship was attacked with six Molotov cocktails.[156] Turkish media have criticized Christian missionary activity intensely.[157]

There is an ethnic Turkish Protestant Christian community most of them came from recent Muslim Turkish backgrounds, rather than from ethnic minorities.[158][159][160][161]

Jews

[edit]
Main articles: History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire and History of the Jews in Turkey
Further information: Antisemitism in Turkey

Jewish communities have lived in Asia Minor since at least the 5th century BC and many Spanish and Portuguese Jews who were expelled from Spain were allowed to settle in the Ottoman Empire (including regions which were located in parts of modern Turkey) in the late 15th century. Despite emigration during the 20th century, modern-day Turkey continues to have a small Jewish population. There is a small Karaite Jewish population which numbers around 100. Karaite Jews are not considered Jews by the Turkish Hakham Bashi.

Muslims

[edit]
Main articles: Islam in the Ottoman Empire and Islam in Turkey

Alawites

[edit]
Main article: Alawites in Turkey

The exact number of Alawites in Turkey is unknown, but there were 185 000 Alawites in 1970.[162] As Muslims, they are not recorded separately from Sunnis in ID registration. In the 1965 census (the last Turkish census where informants were asked their mother tongue), 180,000 people in the three provinces declared their mother tongue as Arabic. However, Arabic-speaking Sunni and Christian people are also included in this figure.

Alawites traditionally speak the same dialect of Levantine Arabic with Syrian Alawites. Arabic is best preserved in rural communities and Samandağ. Younger people in Çukurova cities and (to a lesser extent) in İskenderun tend to speak Turkish. Turkish spoken by Alawites is distinguished by Alawites and non-Alawites alike with its particular accents and vocabulary. Knowledge of Arabic alphabet is confined to religious leaders and men who had worked or studied in Arab countries.

Alevis

[edit]
Proportion of Alevis in Turkey[image reference needed]
Main article: Alevi

Alevis are the biggest religious minority in Turkey. Nearly 15%[163]-25% of all Turkish population is in this group. They are mainly Turk but there are significant Kurd and Zaza populations who are Alevi[164]

Twelvers

[edit]
Main articles: Ithnā‘ashariyyah, Shia Islam in Turkey, Ja'fari jurisprudence, and Theology of Twelvers

Twelver shia population of Turkey is nearly 3 million and most of them are Azeris. Half million of Ja'faris live in Istanbul. [165]

Yazidi

[edit]
Main article: Yazidism in Turkey

Yazidis in Turkey is in the area of the Yazidi homeland, along with Syria and Iraq. The Yazidi population in Turkey was estimated at around 22.000 in 1984.[166] Earlier figures are difficult to obtain and verify, but some estimate there were about 100.000 Yazidi in Turkey in the early years of the 20th century.[167]

Most Yazidis left the country and went abroad in the 1980s and 1990s, mostly to Germany and other European countries where they got asylum due to the persecution as an ethnic and religious minority in Turkey. The area they resided was in the south eastern area of Turkey, an area that had/has heavy PKK fighting. Now a few hundred Yazidi are believed to be left in Turkey.

Tengrists

[edit]

In intellectual circles in Turkey, more and more Turkish people are turning to Tengrism. As an example, a lawyer who possessed an ID card which states that Tengrism is a religion won a court case.[168][169][170]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Ankara 13th Circuit Administrative Court, 18 June 2013 (E. 2012/1746, K. 2013/952).

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b CIA World Factbook: Turkey
  2. ^ "Turkey", The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency, 22 September 2021, archived from the original on 10 January 2021, retrieved 30 September 2021
  3. ^ a b c Antonello Biagini; Giovanna Motta (19 June 2014). Empires and Nations from the Eighteenth to the Twentieth Century: Volume 1. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 143–. ISBN 978-1-4438-6193-9.
  4. ^ a b c Cagaptay, Soner (2014). Islam, Secularism and Nationalism in Modern Turkey: Who is a Turk? (Routledge Studies in Middle Eastern History). p. 70.
  5. ^ a b Cagaptay 2014, p. 70.
  6. ^ Kaya, Nurcan (24 November 2015). "Teaching in and Studying Minority Languages in Turkey: A Brief Overview of Current Issues and Minority Schools". European Yearbook of Minority Issues Online. 12 (1): 315–338. doi:10.1163/9789004306134_013. ISSN 2211-6117. Turkey is a nation–state built on remnants of the Ottoman Empire where non-Muslim minorities were guaranteed the right to set up educational institutions; however, since its establishment, it has officially recognised only Armenians, Greeks and Jews as minorities and guaranteed them the right to manage educational institutions as enshrined in the Treaty of Lausanne. [...] Private language teaching courses teach 'traditionally used languages', elective language courses have been introduced in public schools and universities are allowed to teach minority languages.
  7. ^ Toktas, Sule (2006). "EU enlargement conditions and minority protection : a reflection on Turkey's non-Muslim minorities". East European Quarterly. 40: 489–519. ISSN 0012-8449. Turkey signed the Covenant on 15 August 2000 and ratified it on 23 September 2003. However, Turkey put a reservation on Article 27 of the Covenant which limited the scope of the right of ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities to enjoy their own culture, to profess and practice their own religion or to use their own language. This reservation provides that this right will be implemented and applied in accordance with the relevant provisions of the Turkish Constitution and the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne. This implies that Turkey grants educational right in minority languages only to the recognized minorities covered by the Lausanne who are the Armenians, Greeks and the Jews.
  8. ^ a b Bayır, Derya (2013). Minorities and nationalism in Turkish law. Cultural Diversity and Law. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing. pp. 88–89, 203–204. ISBN 978-1-4094-7254-4.
  9. ^ Phillips, Thomas James (16 December 2020). "The (In-)Validity of Turkey's Reservation to Article 27 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights". International Journal on Minority and Group Rights. 27 (1): 66–93. doi:10.1163/15718115-02701001. ISSN 1385-4879. S2CID 201398995. The fact that Turkish constitutional law takes an even more restrictive approach to minority rights than required under the Treaty of Lausanne was recognised by the UN Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD) in its concluding observations on the combined fourth to sixth periodic reports of Turkey. The CERD noted that "the treaty of Lausanne does not explicitly prohibit the recognition of other groups as minorities" and that Turkey should consider recognising the minority status of other groups, such as Kurds. 50 In practice, this means that Turkey grants minority rights to "Greek, Armenian and Jewish minority communities while denying their possible impact for unrecognized minority groups (e.g. Kurds, Alevis, Arabs, Syriacs, Protestants, Roma etc.)".
  10. ^ Toktas, Sule; Aras, Bulent (2009). "The EU and Minority Rights in Turkey". Political Science Quarterly. 124 (4): 697–720. doi:10.1002/j.1538-165X.2009.tb00664.x. ISSN 0032-3195. JSTOR 25655744.
  11. ^ Köksal, Yonca (2006). "Minority Policies in Bulgaria and Turkey: The Struggle to Define a Nation". Southeast European and Black Sea Studies. 6 (4): 501–521. doi:10.1080/14683850601016390. ISSN 1468-3857. S2CID 153761516.
  12. ^ Akbulut, Olgun (19 October 2023). "For Centenary of the Lausanne Treaty: Re-Interpretation and Re-Implementation of Linguistic Minority Rights of Lausanne". International Journal on Minority and Group Rights. -1 (aop): 1–24. doi:10.1163/15718115-bja10134. ISSN 1385-4879. S2CID 264412993.
  13. ^ Sabah, Daily (26 August 2019). "Last 17 years a golden era for minority communities, witnessing period of increased rights". Daily Sabah. Retrieved 21 October 2023.
  14. ^ "Cumhurbaşkanı Erdoğan: Nefret suçlarına göz yumanlar, farklı kültürlerin bir arada yaşama iradesini dinamitlemektedir". aa.com.tr. Retrieved 21 October 2023.
  15. ^ "Expulsion and Emigration of the Muslims from the Balkans".
  16. ^ "The Deportation of Muslims from Georgia | Sciences Po Mass Violence and Resistance - Research Network".
  17. ^ "Circassian, Chechnyan, and Other Muslim Communities Expelled from the Caucasus and the Balkans". Displacement and Dispossession in the Modern Middle East. The Contemporary Middle East. Cambridge University Press. 2010. pp. 91–133. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511844812.004. ISBN 9780521817929.
  18. ^ Pentzopoulos, Dimitri (2002). The Balkan exchange of minorities and its impact on Greece. C Hurst & Co. pp. 29–30. ISBN 978-1-85065-702-6.
  19. ^ Pentzopoulos, Dimitri (2002). The Balkan exchange of minorities and its impact on Greece. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. pp. 31–32. ISBN 978-1-85065-702-6.
  20. ^ Icduygu, A., Toktas, S., & Soner, B. A. (2008). The politics of population in a nation-building process: Emigration of non-Muslims from Turkey. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 31(2), 358–389.
  21. ^ Abdal by Peter Alford Andrews pages 435 to 438 in Ethnic groups in the Republic of Turkey / compiled and edited by Peter Alford Andrews, with the assistance of Rüdiger Benninghaus (Wiesbaden : Dr. Ludwig Reichert, 1989) ISBN 3-88226-418-7
  22. ^ https://web.archive.org/web/20061017155856/http://www.unhcr.org/home/PUBL/4492678ae.pdf. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 October 2006. Retrieved 18 February 2024. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  23. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 1 June 2010. Retrieved 11 February 2010.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  24. ^ "Number of Iraqi, Afghan refugees in Turkey halved last year". Archived from the original on 14 September 2012. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
  25. ^ "Republic of Türkiye". Retrieved 18 February 2024.
  26. ^ "Turks with African ancestors want their existence to be felt". Today's Zaman. Todayszaman.com. 11 May 2008. Archived from the original on 27 August 2008. Retrieved 28 August 2008.
  27. ^ "Afro-Türklerin tarihi, Radikal, 30 August 2008, retrieved 22 January 2009". Radikal.com.tr. 30 August 2008. Retrieved 3 May 2012.
  28. ^ "Yugoslavia – Montenegro and Kosovo – The Next Conflict?". Archived from the original on 18 November 2016. Retrieved 3 March 2018.
  29. ^ dBO Advertising Agency – dbo@cg.yu. "ULCINJ – HISTORY". Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 3 March 2018.
  30. ^ Dieudonne Gnammankou, "African Slave Trade in Russia", in La Channe et le lien, Doudou Diene, (id.) Paris, Editions UNESCO, 1988.
  31. ^ Saunders, Robert A. (2011). Ethnopolitics in Cyberspace: The Internet, Minority Nationalism, and the Web of Identity. Lanham: Lexington Books. p. 98. ISBN 9780739141946.
  32. ^ Bernard Lewis (1961). "The Emergence of Modern Turkey". The Geographical Journal. 127 (4): 82. Bibcode:1961GeogJ.127..509B. doi:10.2307/1792817. JSTOR 1792817.
  33. ^ Brandell, Inga (2006). State Frontiers: Borders and Boundaries in the Middle East. I.B.Tauris. p. 144. ISBN 978-1-84511-076-5. Retrieved 30 July 2013.
  34. ^ "Catholic Relief Agency Sheltering Iraqi Chaldean Refugees in Turkey". Archived from the original on 28 November 2007. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
  35. ^ Kaya, Ibrahim. "The Iraqi Refugee Crisis and Turkey: a Legal Outlook". Retrieved 14 October 2023.
  36. ^ "Situation Syria Regional Refugee Response". data2.unhcr.org. Retrieved 13 May 2018.
  37. ^ Modern History of Armenia in the Works of Foreign Authors [Novaya istoriya Armenii v trudax sovremennix zarubezhnix avtorov], edited by R. Sahakyan, Yerevan, 1993, p. 15 (in Russian)
  38. ^ Blundell, Roger Boar, Nigel (1991). Crooks, crime and corruption. New York: Dorset Press. p. 232. ISBN 9780880296151.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  39. ^ Balakian, Peter (13 October 2009). The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response. HarperCollins. p. 36. ISBN 9780061860171.
  40. ^ Books, the editors of Time-Life (1989). The World in arms : timeframe AD 1900-1925 (U.S. ed.). Alexandria, Va.: Time-Life Books. p. 84. ISBN 9780809464708. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
  41. ^ K. Al-Rawi, Ahmed (2012). Media Practice in Iraq. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 9. ISBN 9780230354524. Retrieved 16 January 2013.
  42. ^ history.com/books/Arm-pop-Ottoman-Emp.pdf THE POPULATION OF THE OTTOMAN ARMENIANS by Justin McCarthy [permanent dead link]
  43. ^ Raymond H. Kevorkian and Paul B. Paboudjian, Les Arméniens dans l'Empire Ottoman à la vielle du génocide, Ed. ARHIS, Paris, 1992
  44. ^ a b c Bedrosyan, Raffi (1 August 2011). "Bedrosyan: Searching for Lost Armenian Churches and Schools in Turkey". The Armenian Weekly. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
  45. ^ "ONLY 200,000 ARMENIANS NOW LEFT IN TURKEY". New York Times. 22 October 1915. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
  46. ^ Turay, Anna. "Tarihte Ermeniler". Bolsohays: Istanbul Armenians. Retrieved 4 January 2007.
  47. ^ Hür, Ayşe (31 August 2008). "Türk Ermenisiz, Ermeni Türksüz olmaz!". Taraf (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 2 September 2008. Retrieved 2 September 2008. Sonunda nüfuslarını 70 bine indirmeyi başardık.
  48. ^ "Turkey renames 'divisive' animals". BBC. 8 March 2005. Retrieved 16 January 2013. Animal name changes: Red fox known as Vulpes Vulpes Kurdistanica becomes Vulpes Vulpes. Wild sheep called Ovis Armeniana becomes Ovis Orientalis Anatolicus Roe deer known as Capreolus Capreolus Armenus becomes Capreolus Cuprelus Capreolus.
  49. ^ "Yiğidi öldürmek ama hakkını da vermek..." Lraper. Archived from the original on 21 October 2013. Retrieved 16 January 2013.
  50. ^ "Patrik II. Mesrob Hazretleri 6 Agustos 2006 Pazar". Bolsohays News (in Turkish). 7 August 2006. Retrieved 16 January 2013.
  51. ^ Hovannisian, Richard G., ed. (1991). The Armenian genocide in perspective (4. pr. ed.). New Brunswick, NJ [u.a.]: Transaction. ISBN 9780887386367.
  52. ^ "Estimates of Australian citizens living overseas" (PDF). southern-cross-group.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 July 2008.
  53. ^ Human Rights Watch 1999 Report on Turkey
  54. ^ Life of Azerbaijanis in Turkey Archived 2003-12-29 at the Wayback Machine. An interview with Sayyad Aran, Consul General of the Azerbaijan Republic to Istanbul. Azerbaijan Today
  55. ^ (in Turkish) Qarslı bir azərbaycanlının ürək sözləri. Erol Özaydın
  56. ^ (in Turkish) Iğdır Sevdası, Mücahit Özden Hun
  57. ^ (in Turkish) KARS: AKP'nin kozu tarım desteği. Milliyet. 23 June 2007. Retrieved 6 December 2008
  58. ^ Bernard Lewis (1961). "The Emergence of Modern Turkey". The Geographical Journal. 127 (4): 87. Bibcode:1961GeogJ.127..509B. doi:10.2307/1792817. JSTOR 1792817.
  59. ^ "Today's Zaman, your gateway to Turkish daily news". Archived from the original on 14 May 2014. Retrieved 13 May 2014.
  60. ^ "BBC NEWS | Special Reports | Brits Abroad". news.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 18 February 2024.
  61. ^ Yavuz, Hande. "The Number Of Expats Has Reached 26,000". Capital. Archived from the original on 14 January 2011.
  62. ^ The Balkans, Minorities and States in Conflict (1993), Minority Rights Publication, by Hugh Poulton, p. 111.
  63. ^ Richard V. Weekes; Muslim peoples: a world ethnographic survey, Volume 1; 1984; p.612
  64. ^ Raju G. C. Thomas; Yugoslavia unraveled: sovereignty, self-determination, intervention; 2003, p.105
  65. ^ R. J. Crampton, Bulgaria, 2007, p.8
  66. ^ Janusz Bugajski, Ethnic politics in Eastern Europe: a guide to nationality policies, organizations, and parties; 1995, p.237
  67. ^ Gordon, Raymond G. Jr., ed. (2005). "Languages of Turkey (Europe)". Ethnologue: Languages of the World (Fifteenth ed.). Dallas, Texas: SIL International. ISBN 978-1-55671-159-6.
  68. ^ a b "Trial sheds light on shades of Turkey". Hurriyet Daily News and Economic Review. 10 June 2008. Archived from the original on 26 January 2013. Retrieved 23 March 2011.
  69. ^ a b c d e f "Milliyet – Turkified Pomaks in Turkey" (in Turkish). www.milliyet.com.tr. Retrieved 8 February 2011.
  70. ^ ""Българската общност в Република Турция "". Archived from the original on 8 August 2012. Retrieved 19 October 2011.
  71. ^ News Review on South Asia and Indian Ocean. Institute for Defence Studies & Analyses. July 1982. p. 861.
  72. ^ Problèmes politiques et sociaux. Documentation française. 1982. p. 15.
  73. ^ a b Espace populations sociétés. Université des sciences et techniques de Lille, U.E.R. de géographie. 2006. p. 174.
  74. ^ Andrew D. W. Forbes (9 October 1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949. CUP Archive. pp. 156–. ISBN 978-0-521-25514-1.Andrew D. W. Forbes (9 October 1986). Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: A Political History of Republican Sinkiang 1911-1949. CUP Archive. pp. 236–. ISBN 978-0-521-25514-1.
  75. ^ "Kazak Türkleri Vakfı Resmi Web Sayfası". Kazak Türkleri Vakfı Resmi Web Sayfası. Archived from the original on 13 September 2016.
  76. ^ Dru C. Gladney (1 April 2004). Dislocating China: Muslims, Minorities, and Other Subaltern Subjects. University of Chicago Press. pp. 184–. ISBN 978-0-226-29776-7.
  77. ^ "Kazak Kültür Derneği". Archived from the original on 20 June 2012.
  78. ^ Lonely Planet (1 June 2014). Great Adventures. Lonely Planet Publications. ISBN 978-1-74360-102-0.
  79. ^ Finkel, Michael (February 2013). "Wakhan Corridor". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 19 January 2013. Retrieved 30 August 2016.
  80. ^ David J. Phillips (2001). Peoples on the Move: Introducing the Nomads of the World. William Carey Library. pp. 314–. ISBN 978-0-87808-352-7.
  81. ^ "Kırgızistan Dostluk ve Kültür Derneği Resmi Sitesi". Кыргызстан Достук жана Маданият Коому (Kırgızistan Kültür ve Dostluk Derneği Resmi Sitesi). Archived from the original on 8 October 2013.
  82. ^ Kahl, Thede (2006). "The Islamisation of the Meglen Vlachs (Megleno-Romanians): The Village of Nânti (Nótia) and the "Nântinets" in Present-Day Turkey". Nationalities Papers. 34 (1): 71–90. doi:10.1080/00905990500504871. S2CID 161615853.
  83. ^ Evrenpaşa Köyü | Güney Türkistan'dan Anadoluya Urfa Ceylanpınar Özbek Türkleri Archived 2019-06-23 at the Wayback Machine. Evrenpasakoyu.wordpress.com. Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
  84. ^ Balcı, Bayram (Winter 2004). "The Role of the Pilgrimage in Relations between Uzbekistan and the Uzbek Community of Saudi Arabia" (PDF). Central Eurasian Studies Review. 3 (1): 17. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 30 August 2016.
  85. ^ "ISIL recruits Chinese with fake Turkish passports from Istanbul". BGNNews.com. Istanbul. 9 April 2015. Archived from the original on 25 September 2015.
  86. ^ Blanchard, Ben (11 July 2015). "China says Uighurs being sold as 'cannon fodder' for extremist groups". Reuters. BEIJING.
  87. ^ "Uyghurs sold as 'cannon fodder' for extremist groups: China". Asia Times. 11 July 2015. Archived from the original on 21 February 2020.
  88. ^ Yitzhak Shichor; East-West Center (2009). Ethno-diplomacy, the Uyghur hitch in Sino-Turkish relations. East-West Center. p. 16. ISBN 978-1-932728-80-4.
  89. ^ Barbara Pusch; Tomas Wilkoszewski (2008). Facetten internationaler Migration in die Türkei: gesellschaftliche Rahmenbedingungen und persönliche Lebenswelten. Ergon-Verlag. p. 221. ISBN 978-3-89913-647-0.
  90. ^ Dru C. Gladney (1 April 2004). Dislocating China: Muslims, Minorities, and Other Subaltern Subjects. University of Chicago Press. pp. 183–. ISBN 978-0-226-29776-7.
  91. ^ Touraj Atabaki; John O'Kane (15 October 1998). Post-Soviet Central Asia. I. B. Tauris. p. 305. ISBN 978-1-86064-327-9.
  92. ^ S. Frederick Starr (4 March 2015). Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland. Routledge. pp. 391–. ISBN 978-1-317-45137-2.
  93. ^ J. Craig Jenkins; Esther E. Gottlieb (31 December 2011). Identity Conflicts: Can Violence be Regulated?. Transaction Publishers. pp. 108–. ISBN 978-1-4128-0924-5.
  94. ^ Exploring the Nature of Uighur Nationalism: Freedom Fighters Or Terrorists? : Hearing Before the Subcommittee on International Organizations, Human Rights, and Oversight of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, One Hundred Eleventh Congress, First Session, June 16, 2009. U.S. Government Printing Office. 2009. p. 52.
  95. ^ United States. Congress. House. Committee on Foreign Affairs. Subcommittee on International Organizations, Human Rights, and Oversight (2009). Exploring the nature of Uighur nationalism: freedom fighters or terrorists? : hearing before the Subcommittee on International Organizations, Human Rights, and Oversight of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, One Hundred Eleventh Congress, first session, June 16, 2009. U.S. G.P.O. p. 52. ISBN 9780160843945.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  96. ^ "Uygur Ajan Rabia Kadir, Doğu Türkistanlı Mücahidleri İhbar Etti". ISLAH HABER "Özgür Ümmetin Habercisi". 8 January 2015. Archived from the original on 3 February 2016. Retrieved 31 August 2016.
  97. ^ Zenn, Jacob (10 October 2014). "An Overview of Chinese Fighters and Anti-Chinese Militant Groups in Syria and Iraq". China Brief. 14 (19). The Jamestown Foundation. Archived from the original on 18 June 2015. Retrieved 14 June 2015.
  98. ^ YoSIN, Muhammad (1 November 2015). "Истанбулда Туркистонлик муҳожирларга қилинаётган қотилликларга қарши норозилик намойиши бўлди (Kирил ва Лотинда)". Uluslararası Türkistanlılar Dayanışma Derneği.
  99. ^ "China entered into Istanbul, Turkey with her 150 Spies". EAST TURKESTAN BULLETIN NEWS AGENT/ News Center. 29 November 2015. Archived from the original on 19 January 2016.
  100. ^ "Çin İstihbaratı, 150 Ajan İle İstanbul'a Giriş Yaptı". DOĞU TÜRKİSTAN BÜLTENİ HABER AJANSI / Haber Merkezi. 20 November 2015. Archived from the original on 28 November 2015.
  101. ^ "Doğu Türkistan Göçmenler Derneği, türkistan, dogu turkistan". DOĞU TÜRKİSTAN GÖÇMENLER DERNEĞİ. Archived from the original on 8 May 2016. Retrieved 1 September 2016.
  102. ^ "|| Gökbayrak Dergisi". Doğu Türkistan Kültür ve Dayanışma Derneği Genel Merkezi.
  103. ^ "Doğu Türkistan Maarif Derneği". Doğu Türkistan Maarif ve Dayanışma Derneği.
  104. ^ Bernard Lewis (1961). "The Emergence of Modern Turkey". The Geographical Journal. 127 (4): 94. Bibcode:1961GeogJ.127..509B. doi:10.2307/1792817. JSTOR 1792817.
  105. ^ "Ethnologue: Abasinen". Ethnologue. Retrieved 20 November 2014.
  106. ^ "Ethnologue: Abchasen". Ethnologue. Retrieved 20 November 2014.
  107. ^ Papşu, Murat (2003). Çerkes dillerine genel bir bakış Kafkasya ve Türkiye Archived 10 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Nart Dergisi, Mart-Nisan 2003, Sayı:35
  108. ^ Özsaray, Mustafa (20 Şubat 2012). Çerkeslerin İslamlaşması. İz Yayıncılık. ISBN 9789753558716.
  109. ^ Адыгэхэм я щыгъуэ-щIэж махуэм къызэрагъэпэща пэкIур Тыркум гулъытэншэу къыщагъэнакъым. 2012-06-09 (Çerkesçe)
  110. ^ "Kafkas Dernekleri Federasyonu İlkeleri". Archived from the original on 15 March 2013. Retrieved 9 April 2013.
  111. ^ Peter Alford Andrews, Rüdiger Benninghaus,Ethnic groups in the Republic of Turkey, Vol. 2, Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, 1989, Wiesbaden, ISBN 3-88226-418-7, p. 87., Peter Alford Andrews, Türkiye'de Etnik Gruplar, ANT Yayınları, Aralık 1992, ISBN 975-7350-03-6, s.116–118.
  112. ^ "Crimean Tatars and Noghais in Turkey". www.iccrimea.org. Retrieved 18 February 2024.
  113. ^ "CBS - One in eleven old age pensioners live abroad - Web magazine". Archived from the original on 5 February 2012. Retrieved 7 August 2012.
  114. ^ a b "No Filipino casualty in Turkey quake – DFA". GMA News. 3 August 2010.
  115. ^ a b "PGMA off on a 3-nation swing". Pinoy Global Online News. 2007. Archived from the original on 11 July 2011. Retrieved 15 December 2018.
  116. ^ Şentürk, Cem (15 October 2007). "The Germans in Turkey". Turkofamerica. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
  117. ^ European Commission for Democracy through Law (2002). The Protection of National Minorities by Their Kin-State. Council of Europe. p. 142. ISBN 978-92-871-5082-0. Retrieved 2 February 2013. In Turkey the Orthodox minority who remained in Istanbul, Imvros and Tenedos governed by the same provisions of the treaty of Lausanne was gradually shrunk from more than 200,000 in 1930 to less than 3,000 today.
  118. ^ "Η μειονότητα των Ορθόδοξων Χριστιανών στις επίσημες στατιστικές της σύγχρονης Τουρκίας και στον αστικό χώρο" [The minority of Orthodox Christians in the official statistics of modern Turkey and in the urban area] (in Greek). Archived from the original on 9 May 2021. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
  119. ^ Kilic, Ecevit (7 September 2008). "Sermaye nasıl el değiştirdi?". Sabah (in Turkish). Retrieved 25 December 2008. 6–7 Eylül olaylarından önce İstanbul'da 135 bin Rum yaşıyordu. Sonrasında bu sayı 70 bine düştü. 1978'e gelindiğinde bu rakam 7 bindi.
  120. ^ "Foreign Ministry: 89,000 minorities live in Turkey". Today's Zaman. 15 December 2008. Archived from the original on 1 May 2010. Retrieved 15 December 2008.
  121. ^ a b Lois Whitman Denying Human Rights and Ethnic Identity: The Greeks of Turkey. Human Rights Watch, September 1, 1992 – 54 pages. Page 2 [1]
  122. ^ Turkey: Istanbul's Greek Community Experiencing a Revival (Eurasianet, 2 March 2011)
  123. ^ Jobseekers from Greece try chances in Istanbul (Hurriyet Daily News, 9 January 2012)
  124. ^ Hunter, Shireen (2010). Iran's Foreign Policy in the Post-Soviet Era: Resisting the New International Order. ABC-CLIO. p. 160. ISBN 9780313381942.
  125. ^ "Kürt Meselesi̇ni̇ Yeni̇den Düşünmek" (PDF). KONDA. July 2010. pp. 19–20. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 January 2016. Retrieved 11 June 2013.
  126. ^ David McDowall. A Modern History of the Kurds. Third Edition. I.B.Tauris, May 14, 2004 – 504 pages, page 3.
  127. ^ "Kurdistan-Turkey". GlobalSecurity.org. 22 March 2007. Retrieved 28 March 2007.
  128. ^ Mersin'in bahanesi yok Archived 2012-10-19 at the Wayback Machine, Radikal, 26 May 2007
  129. ^ "AHISKA TURKS". BİZİM AHISKA DERGİSİ WEB SAYFASI (in Turkish). Retrieved 14 October 2023.
  130. ^ World Bulletin [permanent dead link]
  131. ^ "Folk songs".
  132. ^ "Patriyotlar Kısa Belgesel (Elbasan) - YouTube". YouTube.
  133. ^ "Trakya'da Az Bilinen Etnik Bir Grup; PATRİYOTLAR – Trakya Gezi".
  134. ^ "Türkiye’deki Çingene nüfusu tam bilinmiyor.Article from Hürryet Archived 7 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  135. ^ Romani, according to latest estimations of some experts, number between 4 and 5 million. European Roma Information Office
  136. ^ "toplumsal yapı araştırması 2006" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 October 2010. Retrieved 14 October 2023. Bu düzenlemeyle ortaya çıkan tabloda Türkiye'de yetişkinlerin (18 yaş ve üstündekilerin) etnik kimliklerin dağılımı ... % 0,05 Roman ... şeklindedir.
  137. ^ Elena Marushiakova, Veselin Popov (2001) "Gypsies in the Ottoman Empire", ISBN 1902806026University of Hertfordshire Press
    • Original: Елена Марушиакова, Веселин Попов (2000) "Циганите в Османската империя". Литавра, София (Litavra Publishers, Sofia).(in Bulgarian)
  138. ^ a b «Получить точные статистические данные относительно численности соотечественников в Турции не представляется возможным… в целом сегодня можно говорить примерно о 50 тыс. проживающих в Турции россиян». // Интервью журналу «Консул» № 4 /19/, декабрь 2009 года на сайте МИД РФ
  139. ^ Demographics of Turkey#1965 census
  140. ^ Tahta, Selahattin 2002: Ursprung und Entwicklung der Zaza-Nationalbewegung im Lichte ihrer politischen und literarischen Veröffentlichungen. Unpublished Master Thesis. Berlin.
  141. ^ "Zaza people and Zaza language". Archived from the original on 31 January 2019. Retrieved 29 April 2020.
  142. ^ "Malmisanıj - Kırd, Kırmanc, Dımıli veya Zaza Kürtleri". calameo.com. Retrieved 18 February 2024.
  143. ^ ıdır EREN, “Dil İle İnsan Sferi Arasındaki İlişki
  144. ^ Andrews, Peter Alford 1989: Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey. Wiesbaden
  145. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 October 2013. Retrieved 14 November 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  146. ^ "KONDA Toplumsal Değişim Raporu: Türkiye'de inançsızlık yükselişte". 3 January 2019.
  147. ^ "Turkey". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 18 February 2024.
  148. ^ a b c "Turkey (Türkiye)". Retrieved 18 February 2024.
  149. ^ "Priest's killing shocks Christians in Turkey". Catholic World News. 6 February 2006. Archived from the original on 11 February 2006. Retrieved 26 June 2006.
  150. ^ "Priest Slain in Turkey Had Sought Pope Visit". The New York Times. Reuters. 9 February 2006. Retrieved 26 June 2006.
  151. ^ "Confirmed: Pope to visit Turkey in November". Catholic World News. 9 February 2006. Retrieved 26 June 2006.
  152. ^ Donovan, Jeffrey (20 April 2005). "World: New Pope Seen As Maintaining Roman Catholic Doctrinal Continuity". Radio Free Europe. Retrieved 26 June 2006.
  153. ^ "Turkey". International Religious Freedom Report 2004. 15 September 2004. Retrieved 26 June 2006.
  154. ^ "World Evangelical Alliance". Archived from the original on 3 December 2013.
  155. ^ a b "German Site on Christians in Turkey". Archived from the original on 28 September 2007.
  156. ^ "Christian Persecution Info". Christian Persecution Information. 10 November 2006.
  157. ^ "Christianity Today".
  158. ^ "Turkish Protestants still face "long path" to religious freedom". The Christian Century. Retrieved 18 February 2024.
  159. ^ "Turkish News - Latest News from Turkey". Hürriyet Daily News. Retrieved 18 February 2024.
  160. ^ White, Jenny (27 April 2014). Muslim Nationalism and the New Turks: Updated Edition. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-5125-6. Retrieved 18 February 2024 – via Google Books.
  161. ^ "TURKEY: Protestant church closed down". Archived from the original on 22 August 2016. Retrieved 12 October 2014.
  162. ^ State and rural society in medieval Islam: sultans, muqtaʻs, and fallahun. Leiden: E.J. Brill. 1997. p. 162. ISBN 90-04-10649-9.
  163. ^ Structure and Function in Turkish Society. Isis Press, 2006, p. 81).
  164. ^ "The Alevi of Anatolia", 1995.
  165. ^ "minorityrights.org, Caferis". Retrieved 18 February 2024.
  166. ^ Issa, Chaukeddin (2008). Das Yezidentum : Religion und Leben, p.180. Oldenburg: Dengê Êzîdiyan. ISBN 978-3-9810751-4-4.
  167. ^ Gesellschaft für bedrohte Völker: Yezidi. 1989
  168. ^ "Turkish man wins lawsuit to change religion to Tengrism in official records". Duvar English (in Turkish). 14 June 2022. Retrieved 9 October 2023.
  169. ^ Aykanat, Fatma (1 January 2020). "The Contemporary Reflections of Tengrism in Turkish Climate Change Fictions". Chapter 1 in Turkish Ecocriticism: From Neolithic to Contemporary Timescapes. Eds. Serpil Oppermann and Sinan Akıllı.
  170. ^ "Turkish Beliefs | TOTA". tota.world. Retrieved 9 October 2023.

Further reading

[edit]
  • "Freedom of religion and non-Muslim minorities in Turkey" (PDF). Beylunioğlu, Anna Maria. Turkish Policy Quarterly 13.4 (2015): 139-147.
  • Bardakci, Mehmet, et al. Religious minorities in Turkey: Alevi, Armenians, and Syriacs and the struggle to desecuritize religious freedom. Springer, 2017.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minorities_in_Turkey&oldid=1256370682"