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Maumoon Abdul Gayoom
NGIV GCMG GOM
Formal portrait, 2008
3rd President of the Maldives
In office
11 November 1978 – 11 November 2008
Vice PresidentNone
Preceded byIbrahim Nasir
Succeeded byMohamed Nasheed
Minister of Transport
In office
29 March 1977 – 11 November 1978
PresidentIbrahim Nasir
Preceded byHassan Zareer
Succeeded byHassan Zareer
Personal details
Born
Abdulla Maumoon Khairi

(1937-12-29) 29 December 1937 (age 86)
Malé, Maldive Islands
Political partyReform (2019–present)
Other political
affiliations
Spouse
​
(m. 1969)​
Children
Parent
Alma mater
Signature
Maumoon Abdul Gayoom's voice
Gayoom speaks on the 58th World Health Assembly
Recorded 16 May 2005
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Maumoon Abdul Gayoom
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Maumoon Abdul Gayoom (/ɡaɪˈjuːm/ gah-YOOM; Dhivehi: މައުމޫން ޢަބްދުލް ޤައްޔޫމް; born Abdulla Maumoon Khairi; 29 December 1937) is a Maldivian statesman, diplomat and scholar who served as the 3rd president of the Maldives from 1978 to 2008. He previously served as the Minister of Transport from 1977 to 1978, and as the Permanent Representative of the Maldives to the United Nations from 1976 to 1977. After serving six presidential terms, Gayoom became the longest serving president in Asia.

Gayoom was born and raised in Malé. After serving as a lecturer at the Ahmadu Bello University in Nigeria, he returned to the Maldives in 1971 and worked as a teacher at Aminiya School. He was later appointed the manager of shipping department at the government. Gayoom was placed under house arrest in 1973 for criticising the policies of the then-president Nasir. He was later banished to Makunudhoo for four years but was released five months later as part of an amnesty following President Nasir's re-election for a second term. In 1974, he was arrested again for his continued criticism of Nasir's policies, but after 50 days in jail, he was freed and, in 1975, appointed as Special Undersecretary in the Prime Minister's Office. Gayoom later served as the deputy ambassador of the Maldives to Sri Lanka and was appointed deputy minister of transport under minister Hassan Zareer. After serving as deputy minister, he was appointed Permanent Representative of the Maldives to the United Nations in 1976. Following the vacancy of minister of transport, Gayoom was appointed to the position. As president Nasir chose not to seek re-election, a vote in the Citizen's Majlis which selected Gayoom as the candidate. In July 1978, Gayoom won the presidential referendum with 92.96% of the vote.

During his administration, economic policies prioritised infrastructure development and tourism, which significantly boosted the nation's economic growth. He introduced educational reforms that expanded access to primary and secondary education and improved healthcare by establishing new health facilities. In response to political unrest and calls for greater democracy, Gayoom initiated constitutional reforms transitioning from a presidential to a semi-presidential system, intending to increase political participation and transparency. However, his presidency faced criticism for restricting political freedoms and suppressing opposition. The 1988 coup attempt prompted a focus on strengthening the armed forces. The 2004 tsunami had a profound impact on his administration, leading to the loss of 62% of the GDP and nearly two decades of development, which reshaped his policies and necessitated extensive reconstruction efforts. Despite challenges, Gayoom's long tenure, strict policies, and human rights violations, earned him a reputation as a dictator.

Following his defeat in the 2008 presidential election to Mohamed Nasheed, which marked the Maldives's first multi-party elections, Gayoom adopted a low public profile. In 2018, Gayoom was arrested on charges of conspiring to overthrow the government as a part of the 2018 political crisis, and was sentenced to 19 months in prison for obstructing justice after refusing to cooperate with the police and judiciary. He was placed under house arrest in September 2018 due to health concerns and was released on bail later that month. He was acquitted of all charges in October 2018.

Early life

Gayoom, c. 1950s

Maumoon Abdul Gayoom was born Abdulla Maumoon Khairi on 29 December 1937, at his father's home in Machangoalhi, Malé.[1] He was the first child of Abdul Gayoom Ibrahim and Khadheeja Moosa and the tenth child of Abdul Gayoom.[2] His father was a lawyer and the 7th Attorney General of the Maldives from 1950 to 1951. Gayoom is a descendant of the Hilaalee and Dhiyamigili dynasties, with Arab and African ancestry.[3][4]

Gayoom spent his early years under the care of his parents at Kaamineege, their family residence. His birth name was Abdulla Maumoon Khairi, and he was familiarly known as Lhaseedi (Seedi Jr.) at home, while in school, he was called Abdulla Maumoon.[5] His name was changed to Maumoon Abdul Gayoom due to a clerical mistake during the issuance of his passport for overseas education in 1947. When completing the passport form, an assistant mistakenly combined his commonly used name, "Maumoon", with his father's name, resulting in the name Maumoon Abdul Gayoom.[3]

Education

At the age of ten, Gayoom was given a government scholarship to study in Cairo, Egypt in 1947. Due to the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, he stayed in Colombo, Sri Lanka, for two and a half years, during which he studied at Buona Vista College in Galle and Royal College in Colombo. Gayoom arrived in Cairo on 6 March 1950 at the age of twelve, at 4:00 a.m.[6] Upon his arrival in Cairo, he enrolled at Al-Azhar University, where he completed both his first degree and master's degree in Islamic Sharia and Law. Gayoom identified his area of research for his thesis and submitted a proposal, which was accepted by the university, leading to his registration as a PhD student.[6] However, when the government of Ibrahim Nasir recognised Israel and established diplomatic relations, Gayoom expressed his strong opposition by sending a letter to Nasir. As a result, he was banned from entering the Maldives and placed on a government blacklist, forcing him to live abroad for twenty-four years.[6] During his time at Azhar University, Gayoom also spent six months learning Arabic and later joined the faculty, graduating in 1966. Additionally, he obtained a secondary level certificate in English from the American University in Cairo.[7]

Marriage and children

Portrait of Maumoon and Nasreena, 2004

In 1965, the 27-year old Gayoom met 15-year old Nasreena Ibrahim in Cairo while she was there to study.[8] Four years later, on 14 July 1969, the couple married in Cairo, Egypt,[9] before moving to Nigeria for Gayoom to study at Ahmadu Bello University.[10]

A year after their marriage, Maumoon Abdul Gayoom and Nasreena welcomed their first children, twins Dunya and Yumna, on 20 March 1970.[11] Their first son, Ahmed Faris, was born in Malé on 31 March 1971, followed by their second son, Mohamed Ghassan, who was born on 12 June 1980 during Gayoom's presidential administration.[12]

Early career

Career

After marrying Nasreena Ibrahim in 1969, Gayoom joined Ahmadu Bello University in Zaria, Nigeria, where he served as a lecturer in Islamic Studies.[7]

After serving at the Ahmadu Bello University, Gayoom returned to the Maldives in early 1971. From 1971 to 1972, he taught English, arithmetic, and Islam at Aminiya School in Malé, where he gained popularity among parents.[13] In 1972, he was transferred to the government shipping department, where he served as manager.[14]

In 1974, Gayoom was appointed undersecretary and later became director of the government telecommunications department.[15] Later that year, he was appointed special undersecretary in the office of prime minister Ahmed Zaki.[16] The position ended in March 1975 when Zaki was removed from office, and the prime minister's role was abolished. Gayoom then spent time in Colombo before returning to the Maldives, where he was appointed deputy ambassador to Sri Lanka.[15][17] In 1975, he became undersecretary at the Department of External Affairs.[15]

In 1976, Gayoom was appointed deputy minister of transport and, in September, became the Permanent Representative of the Maldives to the United Nations.[15] He returned to the Maldives in March 1977 and served as minister of transport until November 1978.[18]

Minister of Transport (1977–1978)

Soon after returning from the United States after serving at the United Nations, Gayoom accepted President Nasir's request to serve as Minister of transport.[19] At the time, the position was vacant; Nasir appointed Gayoom as the minister of transport in March 1977. During his tenure, Gayoom focused on improving the country's transportation infrastructure.[20] His tenure as minister ended upon his inauguration as president of the Maldives in November 1978.[19]

Imprisonments

During the early 1970s, efforts were underway to expand the tourism industry in the Maldives, led by president Ibrahim Nasir. Tensions between Gayoom and the authorities—arising from earlier disputes during his time in Egypt—continued to grow.[13] His remarks on alcohol and drugs drew widespread attention and sparked discussions across Malé.[13] The government investigated the matter, placing him under house arrest on 12 March 1973.[16] After a trial, Gayoom was sentenced to four years of banishment on 14 May 1973 and transferred to Makunudhoo Island in Haa Dhaalu Atoll on 21 May.[13] He was released on 13 October 1973 under an amnesty following Nasir's re-election, having served five months.[13]

On 28 July 1974, Gayoom was arrested again for continuing to criticise government policies and held in solitary confinement in a Malé prison.[16][13] After 50 days, he was released in September 1974 and ceased further public criticism.[13][16]

Presidential elections

1978 presidential election

Main article: 1978 Maldivian presidential election

Gayoom was nominated for the presidential election in 1978 by his two brothers-in-law, who proposed his name to parliament.[21] Both then-president Ibrahim Nasir and Gayoom were put forward as candidates to be selected as the sole presidential candidate, with Nasir receiving 41 votes and Gayoom securing 5 votes.[22][23] However, Nasir decided not to seek a third term due to health concerns.[22] The Citizen's Majlis nominated three candidates for the presidency: the Minister of Education and former Vice President Abdul Sattar Moosa Didi, the Minister of Health Moomina Haleem, and the Minister of Transport, Gayoom.[24] In July 1978, the Majlis selected Gayoom as the sole candidate for the election—as required by the constitution.[25]

During his campaign, Gayoom pledged to visit every inhabited island in the Maldives within his first five years in office, if elected.[26] He also promised to develop the tourism sector and improve education across the country.[26]

On 28 July 1978, a public referendum was held, in which Gayoom received 92.96% of the vote, making him president-elect. Following his election, Gayoom faced criticism from the public opposition, who argued he was unfit for the presidency.[27]

1983–1998 presidential elections

In the 1983 presidential election, Gayoom was chosen as the sole candidate and was re-elected president on 30 September 1983, receiving 57,913 votes, or 95.62%.[28]

In the 1988 Maldivian presidential election, Gayoom received 69,373 votes and 96.47%. There were 2,537 votes against him.[29]

In the 1993 election, Gayoom received 92.8% of the votes and was elected for a fourth term on 1 October 1993. Gayoom was elected for a fifth term of office on 16 October 1998, receiving 86,504 votes, or 90.90%.[30]

2003 presidential election

Gayoom was selected as the candidate for the presidential referendum with the votes of all 50 members of the People's Majlis.[31] He secured a sixth term with 90.28% of the vote, amounting to 102,909 ballots in the election.[32] Even with high protests against Gayoom, his victory was widely expected, with the government presenting the outcome as evidence of strong public backing.[33] However, concerns were raised regarding the fairness of the process, as only a single candidate was allowed to seek a popular mandate, and political parties had been banned.[33]

Following the election, it was anticipated by the media, that Gayoom's sixth term would be difficult, as there was growing public pressure for a more open and democratic political system.[33]

2008 presidential election

Main article: 2008 Maldivian presidential election

Both the 1968 and 1998 constitutions did not impose term limits on the presidency. However, under the 2008 constitution, a president could serve only two terms, rendering Gayoom ineligible to run in the 2008 election, as he had already served the maximum number of terms. He argued that the previous presidential terms should not be counted toward the term limit since the election was conducted under a new constitution.[34] The Supreme Court concurred, stating that the term limits applied only to those served "under this Constitution," allowing Gayoom to be eligible to contest the election.[35] In his 2008 bid for re-election since the new constitution, Gayoom was running against five candidates with his running mate Ahmed Thasmeen Ali.[36][37]

In the first multi-party elections in the Maldives, Gayoom won the first round of the elections with 40.63% votes. In the second round of the elections, Gayoom secured 45.79% votes however he did not win the elections as his opponent Mohamed Nasheed won with 54.21% votes.[38]

Following the election results, Gayoom addressed and stated "I accept the results of the ... run-off election and I respectfully congratulate Mr. Mohamed Nasheed and his party".[39]

Presidency (1978–2008)

Portrait, c. 1980s

Gayoom was inaugurated as the 3rd president of the Republic of Maldives on 11 November 1978 at 12:00 AM.[40][41] His oath was administered by judge Moosa Fathhy.[42] One of the first things Gayoom did at the beginning of his administration was upgrading the education and healthcare system in the Maldives.

First and second terms (1978–1988)

1980 assassination attempt

In February 1980, Former president Ibrahim Nasir, along with his brother-in-law Ahmed Naseem, Health Minister Mohamed Musthafa Hussain, and businessman Mohamed Yusuf, hired nine former members of the British Special Air Service (SAS) to carry out an assassination and coup attempt against Gayoom.[43] The mercenaries reportedly operated from a base in Sri Lanka, conducting several reconnaissance trips in preparation for the mission.[44] They were provided with arms and promised a payment of US$60,000 each for their services. However, the assassination attempt was ultimately called off by the SAS operatives due to emerging doubts about the operation.[45]

1988 Coup attempt

Main article: 1988 Maldives coup attempt

On 3 November 1988, an attempted coup d'état was launched against Gayoom by a group of Maldivians, along with armed mercenaries from the Sri Lankan Tamil militant organisation, the People's Liberation Organisation of Tamil Eelam (PLOTE).[46][47] The coup was arranged by Abdullah Luthufi, a Maldivian businessman, who sought to overthrow Gayoom's government.[48]

Gayoom's presidency faced weighty opposition, with key figures like Luthufi determined to remove him from power due to dissatisfaction with the political landscape and the perceived lack of opportunities for dissent.[49] Luthufi believed that an outside force was necessary to facilitate this change, as local electoral processes were deemed ineffective.[49] His close association with the People's Liberation Organisation of Tamil Eelam (PLOTE) allowed him to negotiate for military support in the form of an 80-member raiding party.[49] Strategic discussions regarding a sea-borne raid began in 1987, influenced by the deployment of the Indian Peace Keeping Force in Sri Lanka.[50] Additionally, Luthufi secured support from sympathetic members of the Maldivian military, highlighting the complexities of the political situation during Gayoom's rule.[49]

Gayoom reached out to neighbouring and other countries for assistance, contacting India, United Kingdom, United States and Singapore for military aid.[51] Indian prime minister Rajiv Gandhi responded promptly, and within hours, India launched Operation Cactus.[52] Indian paratroopers were airlifted to the Maldives and landed in Malé on the same day, securing key locations and restoring order.[53] The Indian intervention was decisive, with the coup leaders unable to mount resistance once foreign troops arrived.[54][55] Many of the PLOTE mercenaries were captured, while others fled the country.[56]

The coup attempt was effectively quashed within hours of the Indian military's arrival.[57][58] The quick resolution of the coup attempt strengthened Gayoom's position, and he publicly expressed gratitude towards the Indian government for its timely intervention.[59]

Following the coup attempt, planner Abdulla Lutfi and his assistant Sagar Nasir were sentenced to death.[60] However, according to Gayoom, the sentences were reduced to a life sentence of 25 years.[61][62] Following the coup attempt, a small number of Indian soldiers remained in Malé for a year to protect Gayoom from further threats.[63]

Other terms (1988–2008)

2004 tsunami

Main article: 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami
Address to the nation
Gayoom addressing the nation following the tsunami, 26 December 2004
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The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was a major turning point in Gayoom's presidential administration.[64] In response to the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, President Gayoom addressed the nation on the evening of the disaster, stating that citizens should work together with the government to recover from the losses.[65]

The tsunami caused extensive devastation, resulting in the loss of more than three decades of development and an estimated 62% of the country's GDP and a damage cost of approximately US$460 million.[66] According to World Bank estimates, the Maldives experienced a GDP growth rate of 13.75% in 2003; however, this plummeted to -11.223% in 2004 as a direct consequence of the tsunami.[67] Regardless of various recovery efforts, many damages remained unresolved by the end of Gayoom's presidency.[68]

Gayoom declared a state of emergency following the national disaster on the same day, and a special task force was established to deliver aid and supplies.[69] Rescue efforts were hindered by the loss of communication with the nation's over 1,000 islands, as well as the lack of sufficient disaster planning.[70]

Malé bombing

Main article: 2007 Malé bombing

Following the first bomb explosion in Malé on 29 September 2007, which targeted foreign tourists, the government, under the presidency of Gayoom, expressed serious concern over the rising threat of Islamic extremism.[71][72] In response, the government initiated measures to address religious fundamentalism and militancy;[73][71] the authorities declared that clerics or mullahs with beards would be prohibited from entering the country unless specifically invited by the government.[71]

2008 assassination attempt

Main article: Maldivian presidential assassination attempts § Maumoon Abdul Gayoom

On 8 January 2008, Gayoom was visiting Hoarafushi in Haa Alif Atoll.[74] Mohamed Murshid attempted to stab Gayoom in the stomach with a kitchen knife; however, the attack was thwarted by Mohamed Jaisham Ibrahim, a 16-year-old boy scout from Kudahuvadhoo, who intervened and blocked the attack with his own hands.[75] Jaisham sustained injuries during this act and required medical treatment, later being treated at Indira Gandhi Memorial Hospital.[76] Following the incident, Gayoom stated, "By the grace of Almighty Allah, I am well and safe, but severe injuries have been inflicted on this brave young man from this island, Mohamed Jaisham. He is a true hero. I sincerely thank him and his family, and I pray to Almighty Allah for his speedy recovery."[77]

Foreign policy

Palestine and Israel

Further information: Maldives–Palestine relations and Israel–Maldives relations

During his presidency, Gayoom took a firm stance on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, which was a defining feature of his foreign policy.[78] Within a week of taking office in 1978, Gayoom severed the diplomatic relations with Israel that had been established under the previous administration of Ibrahim Nasir.[79][80] He argued that this move was necessary to align with the Maldives' broader support for Palestinian self-determination.[81][82] In 1984, Gayoom invited Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat to the Maldives, and he under took an state visit in July the same year.[83][84]

Gayoom also attempted economic partnerships to strengthen ties with Palestine.[85] His administration launched "Maldives Airways" in collaboration with the Palestinian government, with a fleet of four airplanes.[86] However, the airline faced financial challenges, attributed to international sanctions and economic pressure, which led to its bankruptcy by 1984.[87] Due to the airline's failure, Gayoom's administration continued efforts to support Palestine through other means, such as organising nationwide fundraising campaigns, with donation boxes set up throughout the Maldives.[88]

South and East Asia

Gayoom with Japanese prime minister Junichiro Koizumi, 2001 in Japan
Gayoom with the Minister of External Affairs Natwar Singh in New Delhi in 2005

During Gayoom's presidency, his foreign policy towards South and East Asia was centered on strengthening ties with key regional players, particularly India, China, and Japan.[89]

Gayoom maintained a close relationship with India, which was pivotal during the 1988 coup attempt when India responded with "Operation Cactus" to retain his government.[90][91] Gayoom sought to balance the Maldives' foreign policy by establishing ties with China, especially as China's influence in the Indian Ocean grew through infrastructure investments and the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).[92] Relationships demonstrated Gayoom's pragmatic approach to foreign policy, ensuring the Maldives benefitted from both regional powers without becoming overly dependent on one.[92] China's growing presence was evident in infrastructure projects such as airports and bridges, but the administration was careful to avoid granting military footholds to Beijing, which would have alarmed India.[92]

Africa and the Middle East

Gayoom's tenure as president saw the Maldives strengthening ties with African nations, particularly through multilateral organisations such as the Commonwealth of Nations and the United Nations, where he sought cooperation on shared challenges, such as climate change and development initiatives.[93] He established relations with more than 25 countries in the African continent, during his presidential administration.[94] He strongly advocated for the complete and rapid eradication of apartheid and supported the South African people's right to self-determination.[82] His vocal opposition to apartheid strengthened the Maldives' standing in international forums, where he consistently called for the end of racial oppression and supported liberation movements in Africa.[82]

The situation in southern Africa continues to constitute a threat to the peace and security of the region. We in the Maldives strongly object to the policy of apartheid and racial discrimination since it violates all fundamental human values. We emphasize the need for the total and speedy eradication of apartheid and for the exercise, by the South African people, of their legitimate right to self-determination.

— Statement by Gayoom to the UNGA[82]

In the Middle East, Gayoom prioritised relations with Saudi Arabia and other Gulf states.[95] Saudi Arabia was a crucial ally, providing financial aid, religious scholarships, and investments that supported the Maldives's development.[96] Diplomatic exchanges between the two nations were frequent, and the relationship was anchored in Islamic solidarity. Gayoom's government also sought to deepen ties with other Gulf countries like Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates. These partnerships focused on economic cooperation, with the Gulf states contributing to various infrastructure projects in the Maldives. In 1981, Gayoom established diplomatic relations between Saudi Arabia and the Maldives in history.[97]

United States and Europe

In the realm of security, the Maldives sought to strengthen ties with the United States to enhance its own national security and regional stability.[98] Given its strategic location in the Indian Ocean, the Maldives was seen as an important partner in U.S. efforts to combat piracy and terrorism in the region.[99] Gayoom's government actively cooperated with the U.S. on maritime security initiatives and participated in international discussions concerning security challenges.[100] This cooperation was mutually beneficial, as it provided the Maldives with increased visibility on the global stage while aligning with U.S. interests in ensuring a secure maritime environment.

Gayoom receives Turkish prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan at Velana International Airport in 2005

During the presidency of Gayoom, relations between the Maldives and the United States were marked by cooperation and economic support. The U.S. contributed to the Maldives's economic development mainly through international organisation programmes. Following the December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the two countries signed a bilateral assistance agreement, providing $8.6 million for reconstruction efforts.[101][102] This aid was directed towards rebuilding harbours, sewage systems, and electrical generation facilities, while also helping the Ministry of Finance improve its capacity to manage and absorb international assistance.[101][103]

During his presidency, the Maldives established and nurtured strong relations with various European countries, particularly in the areas of trade, tourism, and development cooperation. The Maldives became an attractive destination for European tourists, which boosted its economy and helped the nation diversify its income sources.[104] European nations, particularly the United Kingdom, Germany, and Italy, played a crucial role in promoting Maldivian tourism, contributing to the growth of the hospitality industry and infrastructure development.[105]

International trips

Countries visited by Gayoom during his presidency in dark blue; Maldives in Red

Gayoom made a number of visits to more than 35 countries during his 30 years of presidency.[106] His first visit following first inauguration, was to Libya to attend 10 September Revolution celebrations in the country. He became the first Maldivian president to visit Libya, Senegal and South Africa.[107] At the end of his presidency, Gayoom had visited India over sixteen times in various capacities, making him the Maldivian president with the most visits to India.[108]

Domestic policy

Health and education policy

Education and healthcare policies were one of the most important–focused subjects during the presidential administration of Gayoom.

When Gayoom became president in 1978, the Maldives lacked a formal education system beyond the capital Malé, although two secondary schools and basic educational infrastructure existed there.[109] In early 1979, his government conducted a study that revealed 24.77% of the population was illiterate. In response, the government launched the "Basic Education Project" in January 1980, aimed at eradicating illiteracy.[110] The project began the following month, with the start of teaching basic education classes.[111] Over time, the initiative reduced the illiteracy rate, bringing it down to 1.06% by 1999.[111] Gayoom made education a key priority, aiming to expand access across the country. His government began by establishing primary schools in the atolls, with Gayoom personally inaugurating the first in South Miladhunmadulu Atoll in March 1979, months after assuming office.[112]

Gayoom awarding the future president Mohamed Waheed Hassan in 1989

A national curriculum was introduced, and efforts were made to provide seven years of primary education to Maldivian children.[113] Additionally, two secondary schools were established in the atolls, reducing the need for students to move to Malé for higher education.[112] The number of students sitting for the General Certificate of Education (GCE) ordinary Level examinations grew from 102 in 1978 to 6,495 in 2002.[112] Total student enrolment increased from around 15,000 in 1978 to 97,323 in 1998, and the literacy rate improved from 70% to 98.82% by the same year.[112] By 1999, 254 schools with 2,646 teachers were providing education up to Grade 10.[112]

Gayoom's administration introduced many healthcare reforms in the late 1970s, when the Maldives had limited medical facilities, including just one small hospital and basic health services. His government prioritised improving maternal and child health, contributing to an increase in life expectancy from 48 years in 1978 to 71 years by 1998.[114] Universal immunisation was achieved by 1990, and the government implemented measures to combat communicable diseases.[114] Gayoom's administration also launched public health campaigns promoting healthy living, balanced diets, and the risks of tobacco consumption.[114]

By 1998, the physician to population ratio had improved from one per 20,700 people in 1978 to one per 1,300, and hospital bed capacity increased nearly tenfold.[114]

Human rights policy

Gayoom's presidency was marked by controversy, particularly regarding human rights issues.[115] International human rights organisations and foreign governments have accused his administration of employing tactics against dissidents, including arbitrary arrest and detention, torture, forced confessions, and politically motivated killings.[116][117] Reports indicated that security forces were sometimes used to intimidate opposition figures.[118]

Criticism of Gayoom's governance came from various quarters, including foreign nations such as those within the European Union and the Commonwealth of Nations, which expressed concerns over his long-term rule and described it as autocratic.[119] Critics highlighted issues related to the abuse of power, and some characterised his leadership style as dictatorial, pointing to limitations on political freedoms.[119] The complex nature of his legacy continues to be a topic of discussion, with supporters citing developmental achievements while critics emphasise human rights violations.[119]

Economic policy

Main article: Economy of the Maldives
The contribution of the tourism and fisheries industries to the GDP of the Maldives between 1980 and 2002

During the Gayoom's administration, tourism became the largest industry in the Maldives, a status it continues to hold.[120] By the 1980s, tourism accounted for 28% of the nation's GDP and more than 60% of its foreign exchange receipts.[121] This sector played a critical role in driving economic growth, with GDP per capita expanding by 265% during the 1980s and a further 115% in the 1990s.[121] The tourism industry's rapid development underpinned the Maldives' economic success, and this expansion provided a steady source of income and foreign currency, which helped to stabilise the economy during Gayoom's rule.[122]

Under Gayoom's leadership, the tourism industry was restructured in 1979 with the introduction of the Tourism Act, which established regulations to manage entry into the sector through capacity control.[122] These measures improved standards in existing resorts and increased profitability.[122] By the end of the 20th century, tourism became a vital part of the Maldivian economy, contributing to GDP and providing a crucial source of foreign currency.[122]

Gayoom's government initiated economic reforms in 1989, aimed at liberalising the economy.[123] These reforms included lifting import quotas and opening certain sectors for export to private enterprises.[123] The liberalisation also extended to foreign investment regulations, encouraging more international involvement in the Maldivian economy. The nation's GDP grew rapidly, with the gross domestic product rising from MVR 440 million in 1980 to MVR 10,458 million by 2005, according to International Monetary Fund estimates.[121]

Throughout the 1980s, the Maldivian economy experienced relatively low inflation, with real GDP growth averaging around 10%. The year 1990 saw an exceptional GDP growth rate of 16.2%, although this figure declined to 4% by 1993.[101] Due to slowdown, the economy continued to perform strongly, with an average real GDP growth of over 7.5% per year from 1995 to 2004.[101] The sustained growth during this period was largely driven by a combination of tourism, fishing, and increased foreign investment, which helped the country weather regional economic challenges.[101]

The Indian Ocean tsunami of 2004, however, caused a sharp contraction in the economy, with the GDP loss of approximately 62%; the Maldivian economy demonstrated resilience, rebounding strongly with a 13% growth rate in 2006.[124] The recovery was driven by a revival in tourism and infrastructure development efforts, supported by international aid and investments.[125] Under Gayoom's administration, the Maldives managed to maintain steady economic growth, regardless of external shocks, while fostering a more open and diversified economy.[126]

Environmental policies

Gayoom awards Ibrahim Shihab in 1979

During his presidency, Gayoom was a strong advocate for environmental protection and climate diplomacy, both nationally and internationally. His administration became one of the first to bring international attention to the potential consequences of climate change for low-lying nations.[127] In 1987, following severe flooding that inundated much of the capital, Malé, Gayoom recognised the looming threat posed by rising sea levels and environmental degradation.[128] He became the first–ever world leader to address the United Nations General Assembly on the dangers of climate change, urging urgent global action on what was, at the time, still a relatively unknown issue.[129][130]

Gayoom's landmark speech at the UNGA is often credited as one of the earliest and most influential calls for global cooperation in combating climate change.[131] His warnings about the vulnerability of small island nations like the Maldives highlighted the risks posed by global warming and sea level rise, issues that were not widely recognised at the time. This intervention marked the beginning of the Maldives' active participation in global climate diplomacy, reinforcing the nation's commitment to advocating for the protection of environmentally fragile states on the international stage.[132]

In addition to his efforts within the Maldives, Gayoom also spearheaded regional environmental cooperation.[133] Under his leadership, the Maldives played an important role in the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) Study on causes and consequences of natural disasters and the Protection and Preservation of the Environment.[134][133] It helped build regional awareness of environmental risks, particularly in relation to natural disasters and the long-term impacts of environmental degradation.[133] Gayoom's focus on regional cooperation helped to enhance the Maldives' preparedness for climate-related challenges.[133]

Furthermore, Gayoom's government initiated the SAARC Study on the Greenhouse effect and its impact on the region.[133] In 1989, Gayoom initiated the Commonwealth Study on Climate Change, which focused on the effects of global warming on Commonwealth nations, particularly small island states.[133] The study, reviewed in 1991, highlighted the pressing need for international cooperation in addressing the challenges posed by rising sea levels and other environmental threats.[133] Gayoom's proactive approach in commissioning and participating of climate-change and environmental topics helped establish the Maldives as a global leader in climate diplomacy and advocacy for small island states.[135]

Political reforms

Gayoom speaking in a podium in 2015

In June 2004, Gayoom launched the "democratic reform agenda" in response to growing calls for political liberalisation and greater civil liberties.[136] Over the following years, notable progress was made — a National Human Rights Commission adhering to international standards was established, political parties were introduced for the first time in 2005, media freedom was granted, and the criminal justice system was modernised.[137][138]

In 2007, after several rounds of negotiations with opposition parties, particularly the Maldivian Democratic Party (MDP), an agreement was reached. The MDP pledged not to engage in violence, while the government committed to releasing political detainees and accelerating the reform process. Concerns over the pace of reforms remained, with some doubting the government's full commitment to change.[139]

By 2008, Gayoom emphasised the progress achieved through his reform agenda.[140] The drafting of a new constitution was nearing completion, aimed at facilitating the transition to a fully liberal democracy. The new constitution introduced a clearer separation of powers, stronger human rights protections, and established independent institutions, including an autonomous Elections Commission and a Supreme Court.[141][142]

This constitution, finalised later 2008, marked a turning point in Maldivian political history.[143] It introduced a multi-party system, limited the presidency to two five-year terms, and created the framework for greater transparency and accountability.[144] Gayoom's administration also prepared for the country's first multi-party presidential election, proposing legislative reforms to guarantee the elections met international standards.

Post-presidency (2008–present)

Gayoom's Award winner portrait, 2013

Following the inauguration of Mohamed Nasheed on 11 November 2008, Gayoom moved to his private residence in Malé.[145] Gayoom made regular appearances at various events throughout the Malé city, until his imprisonment in 2018, and remained low public profile ever since.[146]

In 2010, Gayoom established his non-profit organisation, "the Maumoon Foundation", to support initiatives aimed at improving the livelihoods of the Maldivian people, utilising his resources, contacts, and experience.[147]

In February 2010, Gayoom announced he would be retiring from Maldivian politics.[148]

Gayoom returned to politics in 2011 after resigning from the Dhivehi Rayyithunge Party, which he had established.[149] He cited corruption within the party's leadership as his primary reason for leaving, following disputes with the then party leader, Ahmed Thasmeen Ali.[149][150][151] In early 2011, Gayoom formed a political faction within the DRP known as the Z-DRP, reflecting growing dissent over the party's direction. On 4 September 2011, Gayoom officially announced his resignation from the DRP, declaring that the Z-DRP would evolve into a new party that prioritised integrity and was independent of the DRP's influences.[152]

In September 2011, plans were revealed by Gayoom, for the Progressive Party of Maldives (PPM).[151] The PPM received formal approval from the Elections Commission in October 2011.[153]

In 2016, a leadership dispute emerged between Abdulla Yameen and Gayoom, leading to rapid changes within the Progressive Party of Maldives.[154] Tensions escalated when Gayoom faced challenges to his authority within the party.[155] In 2017, PPM members voted to remove Gayoom as the party leader.[156][157][158] Legal actions were initiated by two Members of Parliament, Ahmed Shiyam and Mohamed Shahid, who filed a case in the Civil Court to formally oust Gayoom from his leadership position.[159]

In 2019, Gayoom announced his intention to establish a new political party, the Maldives Reform Movement.[160][161] Following its establishment, Gayoom's son, Ahmed Faris Maumoon was elected as the president and leader of the Maldives Reform Movement.[162]

Presidential politics

After Gayoom lost the 2008 presidential election and the inauguration of Mohamed Nasheed, Gayoom did not react to Nasheed administration. In the 2013 presidential election, many Maldivian citizens gave the opinion for Gayoom to run in the elections, however he declared in February 2013 that he would not run any further presidential elections.[163] Later then Progressive Party of Maldives held its primary elections and was won by Gayoom's half-brother Abdulla Yameen, in which he endorsed Yameen.[164]

In the 2018 presidential elections, Gayoom endorsed Ibrahim Mohamed Solih, while Yameen was running; the decision was made following the imprisonment of Gayoom by Yameen in 2018.[165]

During the 2024 presidential election, Gayoom's elder son Ahmed Faris Maumoon was running as an independent candidate after Elections Commission rejected his candidacy as a Maldives Reform Movement candidate due to lack of members in the party.[166] Gayoom endorsed Faris and his running mate Abdul Sattar Yoosuf in the elections.[167]

Arrest and imprisonment

Main article: 2018 Maldives political crisis
Gayoom with Indian prime minister Narendra Modi in November 2018

On 5 February 2018, Gayoom was arrested for planning to overthrow his half-brother Abdulla Yameen Abdul Gayoom's government, along with his son-in-law, Mohamed Nadheem.[168] His arrest occurred amid a state of emergency declared by then-President Abdulla Yameen, who justified the actions by alleging a conspiracy and coup attempt.[169] International and nationwide reactions came quickly; Maldivians started protesting the following day as the government declared state emergency.[170]

Shortly before his arrest, Gayoom posted a video message on Twitter, stating, "I have not done anything to be arrested. I urge you to remain steadfast in your resolve too. We will not give up on the reform work we are doing".[171][170] Media reported that Gayoom and his son Faris were being tortured by not being allowed medical treatment.[172][173][174]

On 13 June 2018, Gayoom was sentenced to 19 months in prison for "obstructing justice" after refusing to cooperate with the Maldives police and the judiciary following his arrest.[175] In September 2018, he was placed under house arrest due to health concerns.[176] Gayoom was released on bail on 30 September 2018 and was acquitted on 18 October 2018.[177][178][179][180]

Reactions

International organisations, including the United Nations, expressed concern over the political situation, condemning the arrest as part of a broader "attack on democracy" in the Maldives.[181] The UN urged the Maldivian government to respect judicial independence and fundamental freedoms, criticising the suppression of dissent and the crackdown on political opponents.[181] Human rights groups also voiced their opposition to Gayoom's detention, calling for his immediate release and for the government to uphold democratic norms.[182]

Domestically, Gayoom's arrest deepened the political divide in the country.[183] Opposition leaders, including former President Mohamed Nasheed, condemned the arrest and called for international intervention.[184] Nasheed appealed to India and the United States to step in, asserting that Yameen's actions threatened the rule of law and democratic governance in the Maldives.[185] It is widely believed that the crisis resulted to Yameen's defeat in the 2018 presidential election.[186]

Public image

Regarded as one of the most influential people in the Maldives, Gayoom is the oldest living former president at the age of 86, and has been the earliest-serving living former president since the death of Ibrahim Nasir in 2008.[187]

Health

Gayoom in 2019

Gayoom's health has been a concern in recent years, particularly during his time in jail.[188] He had been diagnosed with Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo.[189] On 13 September 2018, his health deteriorated while he was incarcerated, leading to a visit to the doctor at Maafushi Jail for treatment.[190] The attending physician recommended that Gayoom be placed under house arrest due to difficulties in performing essential activities.[191] An ENT doctor advised him to avoid moving his head to prevent further complications due to Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo.[188] Medical professionals indicated that his health could worsen at any moment, underscoring the seriousness of his condition during his imprisonment.[192] In August 2020, Gayoom tested positive for COVID-19.[193][194][195] He has remained in good health thereafter.[196]

Other activities

An avid reader, Gayoom is known for his deep engagement with literature, particularly in the areas of religion, science, and history during his post-presidency.[13] His fascination with astronomy has been a notable aspect of his personal interests, and he has spent remarkable time studying the moon and celestial bodies.[13] His passion for photography and calligraphy also stands out, with Gayoom being a skilled calligrapher known for his work in Arabic script.[197] His calligraphic works has been displayed at the Islamic Centre since 1984.[198][199]

Gayoom is an enthusiastic sportsman, with a particular interest in badminton and cricket.[13][197] He actively played both sports during his presidency and beyond, maintaining a strong connection to physical activity. His role as an Islamic scholar further complements his diverse range of interests, as he often engages in discussions and lectures on religious matters during his free time.[197]

In a 2020 interview with journalist Amir Saleem, Gayoom said that during his time teaching at Ahmadu Bello University in Nigeria, where he often found himself in an open area surrounded by trees, where he observed stars and the moon and became questioning about their movements.[200] Noticing that "the moon appeared to rise in one direction and set in another", he resolved to understand the phenomenon.[200] This led him to purchase a book on astronomy, resulting in his interest in astronomy.[201]

Awards and honors

Further information: List of awards and honors received by Maumoon Abdul Gayoom
Gayoom receiving the Order of the Rule of Ghazi from Mohamed Waheed Hassan, 2013

Gayoom received several notable awards and honours throughout his career. In 1988, he was included in the Global 500 Roll of Honour by the United Nations Environment Programme.[202] He was presented with the Man of the Sea Award for 1990 by the Lega Navale Italiana in 1991 and the International Environment Award by Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit in 1998.[202] Gayoom also received The Energy and Resources Institute's Sustainable Development Leadership Award in 2008.[202]

In recognition of his contributions to international relations, Gayoom was awarded the Grand Order of Mugunghwa by South Korean president Chun Doo-hwan in 1984,[203] and in 1997, Queen Elizabeth II conferred upon him the title of Knight Grand Cross of St Michael and St George.[204] His efforts in public health were acknowledged with the WHO Health-for-All Gold Medal in 1998.

Other notable accolades include the Shield of Al-Azhar University in 2002, the Sri Lanka Mitra Vibhushana in 2008,[205][206][207] and the Order of the Distinguished Rule of Ghazi, the highest state honour awarded by the Maldives, awarded to him in 2013.[208][209][210] In 2015, Gayoom was awarded the Golden Jubilee Shield of Honour by the State for his exceptional national service in safeguarding, defending, and strengthening the full independence of the Maldives over the preceding 50 years.[211][212]

See also

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Works cited

Posts and offices held
Political offices
Preceded by President of the Maldives
1978–2008 		Succeeded by
Preceded by Minister of Transport
1977–1979 		Succeeded by
Hassan Zareer
Preceded by
Hassan Zareer
 Deputy Minister of Transport
1976 		Succeeded by
Hassan Zareer
Preceded by
Mohamed Nooraddin
 Minister of Fianance
1989–1993 		Succeeded by
Himself
as minister of finance and treasury
Preceded by
Himself
 Minister of Fianance and Treasury
1993–2004 		Succeeded by
Arif Hilmy
Preceded by
Office establsihed
 Minister of Defence
1993–2004 		Succeeded by
Ismail Shaffeeu
Preceded by
Office establsihed
 Governor of the Maldives Monetary Authority
1981–2004 		Succeeded by
Mohamed Jaleel
Diplomatic posts
Preceded by
 Deputy Ambassador of the Maldives to Sri Lanka
1975–1976 		Succeeded by
Preceded by Permanent Representative of the Maldives to the United Nations
1976–1977 		Succeeded by
Preceded by Chairperson of SAARC
1990 		Succeeded by
Preceded by Chairperson of SAARC
1997 		Succeeded by
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