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Maternity care deserts in the United States

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US map of maternal mortality

Maternity care deserts in the United States, also known as maternal care deserts, are counties that lack maternity care resources. The March of Dimes defines a maternity care desert as a county that has no hospitals or birth centers offering obstetric care and no obstetric providers.[1][2] As of 2020 March of Dimes classified 1095 of 3139 of U.S. counties (34.9%) as maternity care deserts.[3] Its 2022 report indicated an increase of nearly 2%, with 1119 of 3142 US counties (35.6%) considered maternity care deserts, affecting a population of over 5.6 million women.[1][4] People living in maternity care deserts may have to travel longer distances to receive care, which is associated with higher costs and a greater risk of pregnancy complications.[5]

The March of Dimes also classifies counties as having low access to maternal care if the county has one hospital or less offering obstetric care, fewer than 60 obstetric providers per 10,000 births and 10% (or greater) of women have no health insurance.[1] Counties were classified as moderate access if they met the requirements of having low access to maternity care but the % of women with no insurance was less than 10%. A county with full access to maternity care had two or more hospitals with obstetric care facilities and 60 or more obstetric providers per 10,000 births.[1]

Maternity care deserts are associated with high maternal mortality rates.[1][6] Since 2018, there has been a 4% increase in maternity care deserts in the U.S.[1] In the United States, up to 60,000 women a year experience severe maternal morbidity, life-threatening complications as a result of pregnancy, resulting in up to 700 pregnancy-related deaths annually.[7][8] Maternal morbidity displays decades-long racial, geographical, and socioeconomic disparities. The United States is one of two countries worldwide that has reported significantly increased maternal mortality since 2000.[7]

Contributing factors

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Race

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Race plays a role in maternal mortality. In 2021, the maternal mortality rate for Black women was 69.9 deaths per 100,000 live births.[9] This is 2.6 times the rate for White women.[1] Approximately 1 in 6 Black infants were born in maternity care deserts and 1 in 4 Native American babies were born in maternity care deserts.[1] Women who identify as American Indian or Alaska Native (AIAN) form 2.2% of the population of women in the U.S.,[10] and around 13% of them gave birth in maternity care deserts.[11][2] They are more likely to experience negative outcomes including pre-term delivery, infant mortality, maternal morbidity, and maternal mortality.[12][1]

Rural communities

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Two in three maternity care deserts are in rural counties.[11][1] Since 2004, rural communities in America have seen a decrease in obstetric services in hospitals.[13] Between 2004 and 2016 obstetric services have decreased from 54% to 45%.[14] Rural areas have a higher number of people on Medicaid and because Medicaid covers less than private insurance for childbirth, rural hospitals are unable to support obstetric care fiscally or through necessary staffing.[13] When care units shut down, the healthcare workers who are able to provide maternity care might leave the area, potentially creating a new desert.[13]

Restrictions on abortion services

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The overturning of Roe v. Wade and changing abortion policy has led to a decrease in access to abortion care across the United States.[15] 3.7 million women (about 5.8% of all women of reproductive age) live in both a maternity care desert and somewhere that has no access to abortion services.[16] States and counties with abortion restrictions have fewer maternity care providers, with a 32% lower ratio of obstetricians and a 59% lower ratio of certified nurse midwives compared to states with abortion access. This disparity has increased the prevalence of maternity care deserts in recent years.[17]

Policies

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Since 1991, the United States government has passed policies to reduce infant and maternal mortality through programs including Healthy Start. Healthy Start was first funded by President George H. W. Bush under Section 301 of the Public Health Services Act. It was further authorized by Congress under the Children's Health Act of 2000, signed by President Clinton, which funded prenatal care and support for children and mothers through early childhood).[13][18]

In 2020, the Division of Reproductive Health of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) launched a national "Hear Her" campaign called to raise awareness of danger signs during and following pregnancy and to improve communication between pregnant or postpartum people, support systems, and health care providers.[19][20]

Federally Qualified Health Centers (FQHC) receive federal money through the Department of Health Resources and Services and provide care for underserved populations or areas.[21] FQHCs fill maternity care gaps by providing reimbursements through Medicaid, which helps providers receive reimbursement for their services.[1] In Houston, one FQHC that provided maternity care increased the number of women who received prenatal care by 44%.[22] The Affordable Care Act increased funding for FQHCs between 2011 and 2015.[23] As of December 2021, 48% of rural counties did not have any FQHC. Urban counties had an average of 3.5 FQHCs per county while rural counties had an average of 1. Half of the counties with no FQHC were also classified as maternity care deserts.[1] Increasing FQHCs can improve maternity care deserts.[24]

Doulas:A doula is a trained maternal support professional who offers emotional, informational and/or psycho-social care during pregnancy, childbirth and/or the postpartum periods. Doulas do not replace but complement the role of clinicians (physicians, midwives and nurses).[25] They provide culturally competent care and have been shown in multiple studies to decrease cesarean sections. Doula care has also been show to reduce the rate of postpartum depression and postpartum anxiety. Continuous support during labor may reduce rate of low 5 minute Apgar scores. Doulas may be a useful tool in decreasing disparities[26] As of August 2022, six states were reimbursing doula services on Medicaid plans[27] and 32 states had proposed legislative efforts to provide doula services or Medicaid reimbursements.[28] There is evidence that this reduction in cesarean rates and improved outcomes may be a cost savings for state Medicaid programs.[29] In order to increase the number of midwives, policy makers have invested in midwifery training programs to make the field more accessible.[30]

Telehealth has been shown to improve obstetric care and early abortion care.[31] Telehealth can be a partial solution to providing care for women in rural areas with a lack of access to care nearby.[32] Telehealth access also overlaps with broadband access as the biggest barrier to telehealth care is internet access.[33]

Medicaid expansion is associated with lower maternal mortality, with 6-7 out of 100,000 fewer maternal deaths than states with no Medicaid expansion.[34] The evidence suggests that long-term coverage before and after pregnancy can reduce rates of maternal mortality.[35] As of 2023, 41 states have passed amendments that extend Medicaid coverage for 12 months, with 5 states planning on expanding access and two states providing limited expansion. This was originally introduced through an improvision through the American Rescue Plan. The option was made permanent by the Consolidated Appropriations Act 2023.[36]

Current response

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Maternal health care has received more legislative attention since the end of Roe v. Wade. The Biden Harris administration has included the phrase "Maternity care deserts" in their blueprint to tackle maternal health in America.[37] In September 2023 the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services announced 90 million dollars in funding to support the plan for tackling maternal care in America.[38]

Bills in Relation Passed by 117th Congress[39]
Bills What it Does
Data Mapping to Save Moms' Lives Act It calls on the Federal Communications Commission to include maternal mortality and severe maternal morbidity in its data on its broadband health mapping tool.[39][40]
Maternal Health Quality Improvement Act of 2021 This bill provides authority to the Department of Health and Human Services to provide grants to support care networks for maternal health in rural areas.[39][41]
Protecting Moms Who Served This bill directs the Department of Veterans Affairs to implement the maternity care coordination program.[39][42]

At the state level: Texas

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46.5% of counties in Texas are maternity care deserts and 4.6% of women in Texas do not have birthing centers within 30 minutes from themselves. 66% of counties in Texas report high rates of chronic health conditions and preterm births, which can worsen maternal health outcomes.[43]

Map of Texas counties

20.4% of women in Texas have inadequate prenatal care compared to 14.8% for the US as a whole.[43] Socioeconomics also impacts prenatal care in Texas. BIPOC women who live in areas with high socioeconomic vulnerability have a 44% increased likelihood of inadequate socioeconomic vulnerability compared to areas with low socioeconomic vulnerability.[43]

Based on the CDC initiative, the Texas Department of State Health Services (DSHS) started its own Hear Her campaign of education and resources to help people recognize urgent maternal warning signs and know when they need to seek help. The campaign also encourages doctors and medical providers to listen to women.[44][45][46]

The United States Health Resources and Services Administration funds the Rural Maternity and Obstetrics Management Strategies (RMOMS) Program In September 2019. RMOMS provides funds to programs that build networks to coordinate continuum of care and use telehealth and specialty care in areas that need it the most. From 2019 to 2020 the Texas RMOMS Comprehensive Maternal Care Network (TX-RMOMS) served 1,644 women and delivered 1,230 babies.[47]

The Texas Presumptive eligibility program allows hospitals to determine if individuals need short term Medicaid. Pregnant women can qualify for both prenatal care and care during pregnancy depending on the hospital's approval.[48] In 2024 there will be a new March of Dimes "Mom & Baby Mobile Health Center" in Houston due to funding from Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Texas.[49]

At the state level: Massachusetts

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In Massachusetts, 100% of counties are full access. 4.6% of people had no birthing hospital within 30 minutes. There is an overall low vulnerability to adverse outcomes due to the availability of reproductive health services.[citation needed]

9.7% of people received no or inadequate prenatal care.[50]

As of December 8, 2023 Masshealth (Medicaid) announced a new benefit of allowing coverage of doula services for pregnant, birthing and post partum members.[51] 

References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Brigance, C.; Lucas, R.; Jones, E.; Davis, A.; Oinuma, M.; Mishkin, K.; Henderson, Z. (2022). Nowhere to Go: Maternity Care Deserts across the U. S. 2022 Report (Report No. 3) (PDF). March of Dimes.
  2. ^ a b Tanne, Janice Hopkins (2023-08-14). "Nearly six million women in the US live in maternity care deserts". BMJ. 382: 1878. doi:10.1136/bmj.p1878. ISSN 1756-1833. PMID 37580083. S2CID 260887893.
  3. ^ Nowhere to Go: Maternity Care Deserts across the U. S. 2020 Report (PDF). March of Dimes. 2020.
  4. ^ Carbajal, Erica (1 August 2023). "For nearly 6 million women, US is a 'dangerous' place to deliver: Report". Beckers Hospital Review. Retrieved 11 February 2024.
  5. ^ Taporco, Jason S; Wolfe, Elizabeth; Chavez, Gabriela (1 March 2021). "Kansas Maternity Deserts: A Cross-Sectional Study of Rural Obstetric Providers". Rural and Remote Health. 21 (1): 6137. doi:10.22605/RRH6137. PMID 33641336.
  6. ^ Barrera, CM; Kramer, MR; Merkt, PT; Petersen, EE; Brantley, MD; Eckhaus, L; Beauregard, JL; Goodman, DA (May 2022). "County-Level Associations Between Pregnancy-Related Mortality Ratios and Contextual Sociospatial Indicators". Obstetrics and Gynecology. 139 (5): 855–865. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000004749. PMC 9015027. PMID 35576344.
  7. ^ a b Wang, Siwen; Rexrode, Kathryn M.; Florio, Andrea A.; Rich-Edwards, Janet W.; Chavarro, Jorge E. (2023-01-27). "Maternal Mortality in the United States: Trends and Opportunities for Prevention". Annual Review of Medicine. 74 (1): 199–216. doi:10.1146/annurev-med-042921-123851. ISSN 0066-4219. PMID 36706746. S2CID 256325844.
  8. ^ Declercq, Eugene; Zephyrin, Laurie C. (28 October 2021). "Severe Maternal Morbidity in the United States: A Primer". The Commonwealth Fund. doi:10.26099/r43h-vh76. Retrieved 22 December 2023.
  9. ^ "Why do so many Black women die in pregnancy? One reason: Doctors don't take them seriously". AP NEWS. Retrieved 2023-12-14.
  10. ^ "Native American/Alaska Native/Native Hawaiian Women in Elective Office". Center for American Women and Politics, Rutgers University. Retrieved 10 February 2024.
  11. ^ a b Gliadkovskaya, Anastassia (Aug 8, 2023). "More US counties have become maternity care deserts since 2020, March of Dimes finds". Fierce Healthcare. Retrieved 10 February 2024.
  12. ^ Thorsen, ML; Harris, S; McGarvey, R; Palacios, J; Thorsen, A (January 2022). "Evaluating disparities in access to obstetric services for American Indian women across Montana". The Journal of Rural Health. 38 (1): 151–160. doi:10.1111/jrh.12572. PMC 8458487. PMID 33754411.
  13. ^ a b c d Sonenberg, Andrea; Mason, Diana J. (2023-01-12). "Maternity Care Deserts in the US". JAMA Health Forum. 4 (1): e225541. doi:10.1001/jamahealthforum.2022.5541. ISSN 2689-0186. PMID 36633853.
  14. ^ Wallace, Maeve; Dyer, Lauren; Felker-Kantor, Erica; Benno, Jia; Vilda, Dovile; Harville, Emily; Theall, Katherine (2021-03-01). "Maternity Care Deserts and Pregnancy-Associated Mortality in Louisiana". Women's Health Issues. 31 (2): 122–129. doi:10.1016/j.whi.2020.09.004. ISSN 1049-3867. PMC 8005403. PMID 33069560.
  15. ^ Rader, B; Upadhyay, UD; Sehgal, NKR; Reis, BY; Brownstein, JS; Hswen, Y (2022). "Estimated Travel Time and Spatial Access to Abortion Facilities in the US Before and After the Dobbs v Jackson Women's Health Decision". JAMA. 328 (20): 2041–2047. doi:10.1001/jama.2022.20424. PMC 9627517. PMID 36318194.
  16. ^ Westman, Nicole (2023-08-01). "Maternal care deserts overlap with lack of abortion access, analysis shows". ABC News. Retrieved 2023-11-29.
  17. ^ Declercq, Eugene; Barnard-Mayers, Ruby; Zephyrin, Laurie; Johnson, Kay (2022-12-14). "The U.S. Maternal Health Divide: The Limited Maternal Health Services and Worse Outcomes of States Proposing New Abortion Restrictions". www.commonwealthfund.org. doi:10.26099/z7dz-8211. Retrieved 2023-11-29.
  18. ^ "Healthy Start Initiative". National Healthy Start Association. Retrieved 10 February 2024.
  19. ^ Behm, B; Tevendale, H; Carrigan, S; Stone, C; Morris, K; Rosenthal, J (December 2022). "A National Communication Effort Addressing Maternal Mortality in the United States: Implementation of the Hear Her Campaign". Journal of Women's Health (2002). 31 (12): 1677–1685. doi:10.1089/jwh.2022.0428. PMC 10964150. PMID 36525044. S2CID 254817168.
  20. ^ "About the Campaign | CDC". Centers for Disease Control. 2 March 2023. Retrieved 10 February 2024.
  21. ^ "Health Center Program Award Recipients | HRSA". www.hrsa.gov. Retrieved 2023-12-14.
  22. ^ Shah, JS; Revere, FL; Toy, EC (December 2018). "Improving Rates of Early Entry Prenatal Care in an Underserved Population". Maternal and Child Health Journal. 22 (12): 1738–1742. doi:10.1007/s10995-018-2569-z. PMID 29992373. S2CID 49669231. Retrieved 10 February 2024.
  23. ^ Behr, CL; Hull, P; Hsu, J; Newhouse, JP; Fung, V (23 March 2022). "Geographic access to federally qualified health centers before and after the affordable care act". BMC Health Services Research. 22 (1): 385. doi:10.1186/s12913-022-07685-0. PMC 8942056. PMID 35321700.
  24. ^ "Improving Maternal Health Outcomes in Medicaid Through FQHCs and Managed Care". UnitedHealthcare Services, Inc. 2022. Retrieved 11 February 2024.
  25. ^ "Impact of Doula Support During Pregnancy, Childbirth and Beyond (A Health Equity Systematic Review)".
  26. ^ Falconi, April M.; Bromfield, Samantha G.; Tang, Trúc; Malloy, Demetria; Blanco, Denae; Disciglio, RN Susan; Chi, RN Winnie (August 2022). "Doula care across the maternity care continuum and impact on maternal health: Evaluation of doula programs across three states using propensity score matching". eClinicalMedicine. 50: 101531. doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101531. PMC 257331. PMID 35812994.
  27. ^ Guenther, Grace; Kett, Paula; Skillman, Susan M; Frogner, Bianca K (August 22, 2022). "The Birth Doula Workforce in the U.S. Rapid Response Brief" (PDF). University of Washington, Center for Health Workforce Studies. Retrieved 11 February 2024. As of August 2022, six states are actively reimbursing doulas for their services under Medicaid: Florida, Maryland, Minnesota, New Jersey, Oregon, and Rhode Island.
  28. ^ "Doula Care Saves Lives, Improves Equity, And Empowers Mothers. State Medicaid Programs Should Pay For It". Forefront Group. 2021-05-26. Retrieved 2024-05-14.
  29. ^ Kozhimannil, Katy Backes; Hardeman, Rachel R.; Attanasio, Laura B.; Blauer-Peterson, Cori; O'Brien, Michelle (April 2013). "Doula Care, Birth Outcomes, and Costs Among Medicaid Beneficiaries". American Journal of Public Health. 103 (4): e113–e121. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2012.301201. ISSN 0090-0036. PMC 3617571.
  30. ^ Jeffers, Noelene K. (August 28, 2023). "Confronting the Issue of Maternity Care Deserts". Johns Hopkins Nursing.
  31. ^ DeNicola, N; Grossman, D; Marko, K; Sonalkar, S; Butler Tobah, YS; Ganju, N; Witkop, CT; Henderson, JT; Butler, JL; Lowery, C (February 2020). "Telehealth Interventions to Improve Obstetric and Gynecologic Health Outcomes: A Systematic Review". Obstetrics and Gynecology. 135 (2): 371–382. doi:10.1097/AOG.0000000000003646. PMC 7012339. PMID 31977782.
  32. ^ "Bridging the gaps with telehealth | Telehealth.HHS.gov". telehealth.hhs.gov. 31 August 2023. Retrieved 24 February 2024.
  33. ^ "Improving access to telehealth | Telehealth.HHS.gov". telehealth.hhs.gov. Retrieved 2024-01-25.
  34. ^ Eliason, Erica L. (2020-05-01). "Adoption of Medicaid Expansion Is Associated with Lower Maternal Mortality". Women's Health Issues. 30 (3): 147–152. doi:10.1016/j.whi.2020.01.005. ISSN 1049-3867. PMID 32111417.
  35. ^ Zephyrin, Laurie C.; Coleman, Akeiisa; Nuzum, Rachel; Getachew, Yaphet (21 November 2019). "Increasing Postpartum Medicaid Coverage Could Reduce Maternal Deaths and Improve Outcomes". The Commonwealth Fund. doi:10.26099/ejtb-tw04. Retrieved 11 February 2024.
  36. ^ "Medicaid Postpartum Coverage Extension Tracker". KFF. 17 January 2024. Retrieved 11 February 2024.
  37. ^ "White House Blueprint for Addressing the Maternal Health Crisis" (PDF). The White House. June 2022. Retrieved 11 February 2024.
  38. ^ "HRSA Invests Nearly $90 Million to Address Maternal Health Crisis | HRSA". www.hrsa.gov. Retrieved 2023-12-14.
  39. ^ a b c d "Recent federal action advances key maternal health policies | National Association of Counties". www.naco.org. Retrieved 2023-12-14.
  40. ^ "S.198 - Data Mapping to Save Moms' Lives Act 117th Congress (2021-2022)". Congress.gov.
  41. ^ "H.R.4387 - Maternal Health Quality Improvement Act of 2021 117th Congress (2021-2022)". Congress.gov.
  42. ^ "S.796 - Protecting Moms Who Served Act of 2021 117th Congress (2021-2022)". Congress.gov.
  43. ^ a b c Fontenot, J.; Lucas, R.; Stoneburner, A.; Brigance, C.; Hubbard, K.; Jones, E.; Mishkin, K. (2023). Where You Live Matters: Maternity Care Deserts and the Crisis of Access and Equity in Texas (Report). March of Dimes. Retrieved 24 February 2024.
  44. ^ Longe, Eniola (1 May 2023). "How can Texas take better care of its Black mothers?". KXAN Austin. Retrieved 11 February 2024.
  45. ^ "On the Mend: Maternal Care Wins Encourage Better Outcomes in Texas". Texas Medical Association. Retrieved 11 February 2024.
  46. ^ "Hear Her Texas | Texas DSHS". www.dshs.texas.gov. Retrieved 2023-12-14.
  47. ^ "Texas Rural Maternity and Obstetrics Management Strategies (TX-RMOMS) Program" (PDF). Health Resources & Services Administration. 2021. Retrieved 11 February 2024.
  48. ^ "Texas Administrative Code". texreg.sos.state.tx.us. Retrieved 2023-12-14.
  49. ^ "Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Texas Grants $1.2 million to Fund March of Dimes' First Texas 'Mom and Baby Mobile Health Center'". www.bcbstx.com. Retrieved 2023-12-14.
  50. ^ "Where you live matters: Maternity care in Massachusetts" (PDF). march of dimes.org. 2023.
  51. ^ "MassHealth Announces Coverage of Doula Services". www.mass.gov. Retrieved 2024-05-08.
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